Aesthetics[a] is the branch ofphilosophy that studiesbeauty,taste, and related phenomena. In a broad sense, it includes thephilosophy of art, which examines the nature of art,artistic creativity, the meanings of artworks, and audience appreciation.
Aestheticproperties are features that influence the aesthetic appeal of objects. They include aesthetic values, which express positive or negative qualities, like the contrast between beauty andugliness. Philosophers debate whether aesthetic properties haveobjective existence or depend on the subjectiveexperiences[b] of observers. According to a common view, aesthetic experiences are associated with disinterestedpleasure detached from practical concerns. Taste is a subjective sensitivity to aesthetic qualities, and differences in taste can lead to disagreements about aesthetic judgments.
Diverse fields investigate aesthetic phenomena, examining their roles inethics,religion, and everyday life as well as thepsychological processes involved in aesthetic experiences. Comparative aesthetics analyzes the similarities and differences between traditions such asWestern,Indian,Chinese,Islamic, andAfrican aesthetics. Aesthetic thought has its roots in antiquity but only emerged as a distinct field of inquiry in the 18th century when philosophers systematically engaged with its foundational concepts.
The nature of aesthetic experiences, like the admiration of artworks, is a central topic of aesthetics.[1]
Aesthetics, sometimes spelledesthetics,[2] is the systematic study ofbeauty,art, andtaste. As a branch of philosophy, it examines which types of aesthetic phenomena there are, how people experience them, and how objects evoke them. This field also investigates the nature of aesthetic judgments, the meaning ofartworks, and the problem ofart criticism.[3] Key questions in aesthetics include "What is art?", "Can aesthetic judgments beobjective?", and "How is aesthetic value related to other values?".[4] One characterization distinguishes between three main approaches to aesthetics: the study of aesthetic concepts and judgments, the study of aesthetic experiences and othermental responses, and the study of the nature and features of aesthetic objects.[5] In a slightly different sense, the termaesthetics can also refer to particular theories of beauty or to beautiful appearances.[6]
Aesthetics is closely related to the philosophy of art and the two terms are often used interchangeably since both involve the philosophical study of aesthetic phenomena. One difference is that the philosophy of art focuses on art, whereas the scope of aesthetics also includes other domains, such as beauty in nature and everyday life. This leads some theorists to argue that the philosophy of art is a subfield of aesthetics.[7] However, the precise relation between the two fields is disputed and another characterization holds that the philosophy of art is the broader discipline. This view argues that aesthetics mainly addresses aesthetic properties, while the philosophy of art also investigates non-aesthetic features of artworks, belonging to fields such asmetaphysics,epistemology,philosophy of language, andethics.[8]
Even though the philosophical study of aesthetic problems originated inantiquity, it was not until the 18th century that aesthetics emerged as a distinct branch of philosophy when philosophers engaged in systematic inquiry into its principles.[9] The term "aesthetics" was coined by the German philosopherAlexander Baumgarten in 1735, initially defined as the study of sensibility or sensations of beautiful objects.[10] The term comes from theancient Greek wordsaisthetikos, meaning'perceptible things',aisthesthai, meaning'perceive, see', andaisthesis, meaning'sensation, perception'.[11] The earliest known use in the English language happened in a translation by W. Hooper in the 1770s.[12]
The domain of the aesthetic encompasses a variety ofproperties,objects,experiences, andjudgments associated with beauty and artistic expression. However, the exact boundaries of this domain are disputed—it is controversial whether there is a group ofessential features shared by all aesthetic phenomena or whether they are more loosely related throughfamily resemblances. Another central topic concerns the relation between different aesthetic concepts, for example, whether the concept "aesthetic object" is defined through the concept of "aesthetic experience".[13]
Aesthetic properties of an object are features that shape its aesthetic appeal or factors that influence aesthetic evaluations. For instance, when an art critic describes an artwork asgreat,vivid, oramusing, they express aesthetic properties of this artwork. Some aesthetic properties focus on aesthetic value in general, likebeautiful andugly, while others center on more specific forms of value, such asgraceful andelegant. Aesthetic properties can also refer to perceptual qualities of objects likebalanced andvivid, to representational aspects likerealistic anddistorted, or to emotional responses such asjoyful andangry.[14]
The precise distinction between aesthetic and non-aesthetic properties is disputed. According to one proposal, aesthetic properties require a specific aesthetic sensitivity in addition to the sensory perception of non-aesthetic properties, going beyond simple colors, shapes, and sounds. Aesthetic properties are associated with evaluations, but not all areintrinsically good or bad. For example, being a realistic representation may be aesthetically good in some artistic contexts and bad in others.[15]
Diagram of the relation between aesthetic concepts. Philosophers debate whether aesthetic objects arematerial orintentional objects.[16]
Theschool of realism argues that aesthetic properties areobjective, mind-independent features of reality. A related proposal asserts that they areemergent properties dependent on non-aesthetic properties. According to this view, the beauty of a painting may emerge from the right combination of colors and shapes. A different position holds that aesthetic properties are response-dependent, for example, that features of objects only qualify as aesthetic properties if they evoke aesthetic experiences in observers.[17] The terms "aesthetic property" and "aesthetic quality" are often used interchangeably to refer to aspects such as beauty, sublimity, and grandeur. However, some philosophers distinguish the two, associating aesthetic properties with objective features and aesthetic qualities with subjective experiences and emotional responses.[18]
An aesthetic object is an object with aesthetic properties. One interpretation suggests that aesthetic objects arematerial entities that evoke aesthetic experiences. According to this view, if a person admires an oil painting then the physicalcanvas andpaint make up the aesthetic object. Another interpretation, associated with the school ofphenomenology, argues that aesthetic objects are not material butintentional objects. Intentional objects are part of the content of experiences andtheir existence depends on the perceiver. An intentional object may accurately reflect a material object, as in the case of veridical perceptions, but can also fail to do so, which happens during perceptualillusions. The phenomenological perspective focuses on the intentional object given in experience rather than the material object considered independently of the perceiver.[19]
Aesthetic values are a special type of aesthetic properties. They express the sensory appeal of an object as a qualitative measure of its aesthetic merit. Aesthetic values contrast with values in other domains, such asmoral,epistemic,religious, andeconomic values. Beauty is usually considered the main aesthetic value, but not the only one. For example,the sublime is another value of things that inspire a feeling of awe and fear. Further suggested values include charm,elegance,harmony, and grace. Historically, pre-modern philosophers typically rejected the idea of multiple distinct aesthetic values. They tended to argue that beauty alone encompasses all that is aesthetically commendable and serves as a unifying concept of the whole domain of aesthetics. Aesthetic values are either positive, likebeautiful andsublime, or negative, such asclumsy andboring.[20] Various attempts have been made to explain why some objects have positive aesthetic values, proposing features like unity, intensity, and the right level ofcomplexity.[21]
The aesthetic value of beauty is often singled out as a central topic of aesthetics.[22] It is a key aspect of human experience, influencing both personal decisions and cultural developments.[23] Often-cited examples of beautiful objects include landscapes, sunsets, humans, and artworks. As a positive value, beauty contrasts withugliness as its negative counterpart. Beauty is typically understood as a quality of objects that involves balance or harmony and evokes admiration or pleasure when perceived, but its precise definition is debated.[24]
Various theoretical disputes surround the nature of beauty and its role in aesthetics. Some theories understand beauty as an objective feature of external objects. Others emphasize its subjective nature, linking it to personal experience and perception. They argue that "beauty is in the eye of the beholder" rather than in the perceived object.[25] Another central debate concerns the features that all beautiful objects have in common. The so-calledclassical conception of beauty is rooted inclassical antiquity and theItalian Renaissance. Focusing on objective features, it asserts that beauty is an harmonious arrangement of parts into a coherent whole.Aesthetic hedonism, by contrast, is a subjective theory holding that a thing is beautiful if it acts as a source of aesthetic pleasure. Other conceptions define beautiful objects in terms of intrinsic value, the manifestation of ideal forms, or as what evokes love and passion.[26]
An aesthetic experience is an appreciation of beauty or an awareness of other aesthetic features. In its most typical form, it is a sensory perception of a natural object or an artwork. However, it can also take other forms, such as aestheticimagination[c] of fictional objects described in literature.[28] Internalist theories, likeMonroe Beardsley's view, explain aesthetic experience from a first-person perspective, focusing on aspects internal to the experience, such as focus and intensity. By contrast, externalist theories, such asGeorge Dickie's position, argue that the key element of aesthetic experiences comes from the experienced external objects and their aesthetic properties.[29]
Diverse features are associated with aesthetic experiences, but it is controversial whether any of them are essential. Aesthetic experiences usually appreciate an object for its own sake because of its sensory properties, resulting in aesthetic pleasure from a positive evaluation of the object. This pleasure is typically said to be detached from practical concerns and can involve selfless absorption, allowing imaginative freedom or free play ofmental faculties in addition to sensory perception. Some theorists associate this free play with an absence of conceptual activity. Aesthetic experiences may also benormative, meaning that certain responses are appropriate, like the positive appreciation of beauty, but others are not, such as the positive appreciation of ugliness.[30]
A central aspect of aesthetic experience is the aesthetic attitude—a special way of observing or engaging with art and nature. This attitude involves a form of pure appreciation of perceptual qualities detached from personaldesires and practical concerns. It isdisinterested in this sense by engaging with an object for its own sake without ulterior motives or practical consequences. For example, the experience of a violent storm through the aesthetic attitude may focus on its intricate patterns of lightning and thunder rather than preparing for its immediate dangers. One characterization understands the aesthetic attitude as a natural form of apprehension that occurs on its own in certain situations. Another outlook holds that the aesthetic attitude is avoluntary stance people can choose to adopt towards any object.[31] There is debate about the extent and type of emotional engagement a disinterested stance requires, for instance, whether fear during ahorror movie can be disinterested.[32]
The aesthetic attitude is sometimes contrasted with other attitudes, such as the practical attitude, which is interested in usefulness and seeks to utilize or manipulate objects to achieve specific goals. Similarly, it differs from the scientific attitude, which aims to explain phenomena and acquirefactual knowledge about the world.[31] Some philosophers, such asArthur Schopenhauer andMartin Heidegger, suggest that the aesthetic attitude can reveal aspects of reality obscured in other attitudes.[33]
Aesthetic experience is further associated with aesthetic pleasure—a form of enjoyment in response to natural and artistic beauty. It is typically characterized as disinterested pleasure. It contrasts with interested pleasure that arises from the satisfaction of desires, such as the joy of achieving a personal goal or indulging ina particular type of food one craved. Another difference is that aesthetic pleasure does not depend on the existence of the enjoyed object, like enjoying the beauty of a sunset in adream. The joy in achieving a personal goal, by contrast, would be frustrated if one discovered that the achievement was merely a dream.[34] Philosophers likeImmanuel Kant argue that aesthetic pleasure is pre-conceptual, meaning that it arises from a free interplay between imagination and understanding rather than from cognitive judgments or conceptual analysis.[35] Some theorists distinguish refined from unrefined aesthetic pleasures based on whether the pleasure is evoked by a cultivated taste or an immediate, instinctual response.[36]
Aesthetic pleasure is central to the characterization of various aesthetic phenomena, which are said to involve or evoke such pleasure. However, the view that aesthetic pleasure is the defining characteristic of the entire aesthetic domain is controversial. It faces challenges in explaining phenomena such as the sublime,drama,tragedy, and various forms ofmodern art, which may evoke diverse emotions not primarily linked to pleasure.[36]
According toImmanuel Kant, aesthetic judgments are subjective, universal, disinterested, and involve an interplay of sense, imagination, and understanding.[37]
Aesthetic judgments are assessments of the aesthetic features and values of objects, expressed in statements like "this music is beautiful". They can apply both to natural objects and artworks. Aesthetic judgments also include assessments about how or why an object has aesthetic value without explicitly determine its overall aesthetic worth, as in the statement "this music is balanced". Many debates in aesthetics concern the nature of aesthetic judgments, in particular, whether they can be as objective and universal asempirical judgments made bynatural scientists. Subjectivists argue that aesthetic judgments express personal feelings and dislikes without universal validity. This view is contested by objectivists, who hold that aesthetic judgments describe objective features that are independent of the particularpreferences of the judging individual. Intermediate views suggest that the standards of aesthetic judgment are grounded in stable shared dispositions rather than variable individual preferences, resulting in a form of subjective universality.[38] This position is reflected in Kant's view, which identifies four core features of aesthetic judgments: they are subjective, universal, disinterested, and involve an interplay of sense, imagination, and understanding.[39]
Philosophers such asFrancis Hutcheson andDavid Hume argue that there are general aesthetic principles or universal criteria that are applied when making aesthetic judgments. Particularists, by contrast, assert that the unique nature of each aesthetic object requires a case-by-case evaluation that cannot be fully subsumed under general principles.[40] A related debate between rationalism and the immediacy thesis concerns whether aesthetic judgments are mediated through concept application andreasoning or emerge directly from sensoryintuition.[41]
Aesthetic judgments rely ontaste,[d] which is a sensitivity to aesthetic qualities, a capacity to feel aesthetic pleasure, or an ability to discern beauty and other aesthetic qualities. Taste is a type of preference expressed in immediate reactions and is sometimes understood as an inner sense or cognitive faculty. Differences in taste are often used to explain why people disagree about aesthetic judgments and why the judgments of some people, such as art critics with extensive experience and a refined sense, carry more weight than those of casual observers. Taste varies both between cultures and between individuals within a culture.[e] However, there are also some cross-cultural agreements. Various philosophers argue that taste can be learned to some extent and that the judgments of experienced observers follow similar standards, suggesting the existence of social norms of right and wrong aesthetic assessments.[45]
The term "aesthetic universal" refers to aspects of taste and other aesthetic phenomena that are shared across different cultures and societies, indicating common features of human nature underlying aesthetics. Suggested general tendencies include the dispositions to engage in artistic expressions or to derive aesthetic pleasure from appreciating these expressions. The existence of more specific shared tendencies is debated. An example is the idea that humans generally findsavanna-like landscapes with open grassy plains and scattered trees pleasing.[46]
Art is a central topic of aesthetics and the main subject of the philosophy of art. It encompasses diverse forms, including painting, sculpture, music, dance, literature, and theater. This field covers both artworks and the skills or activities involved in their creation. Artworks are artifacts orperformances typically created by humans. They differ in this respect from naturally occurring aesthetic objects, like landscapes and sunsets.[47]
A central debate in the philosophy of art concerns the definition of art or how todistinguish it from non-art.[48] There are diverse theories, each offering a unique perspective about the nature of art.[49]
Conventionalist definitions of art assert that art is asocially constructed category. They explain that readymade objects likeMarcel Duchamp'sFountain are considered art by reference to established conventions.[50]
Essentialist approaches argue that there is anessence or a set of inherent features shared by all artworks and only by them.[51] They often define artworks in terms of other aesthetic concepts, such asrepresentation,beauty, oraesthetic experience. An early object-centered approach, first proposed byPlato, characterizes artworks as representations that seek to reflect orimitate certain aspects of reality.[52] Another definition suggests that artworks are objects designed to evoke aesthetic experiences or pleasure. A related approach proposes that all artworks have certain aesthetic properties in common, such as beauty.[53]Aesthetic formalism argues that specific formal features, such as a "significant form", are the hallmark of art.[54] Artist-centered approaches see artistic activity as the essential aspect of artworks. One conception understands artworks as special vehicles through which artists express emotions and othermental states.[55]
Conventionalist definitions view art as asocially constructed category. This means that it does not primarily depend on the inherent properties of objects, for example, what they represent or what forms they have. Instead, art is defined by social and cultural agreements, which are subject to change. A key motivation for this approach has been the emergence of modern art, which has challenged many earlier conceptions. Conventionalist definitions can explain, for instance, that even mundaneready-made objects likea urinal are considered art if conventions say so. Institutional theories argue that the conventions are set by social institutions of theart world. Because of this social dependence, an object considered art in onesociety may not be art in another society. Historical theories, another form of conventionalism, assert that the category of art depends on established traditions and historical contexts. They claim that an object becomes part of this category if it stands in the right relation to these traditions, for example, by being created in an artistic context and resembling other recognized artworks.[56]
There are also hybrid theories that combine elements from other theories. For instance, one approach holds that an object is an artwork if it either meets certain aesthetic standards or is conventionally regarded as art.[57] The diversity of proposed definitions[f] and the difficulties in reconciling them have led some philosophers to argue against the existence of precise criteria. Some conclude that a definition is strictly impossible. Others provide vague characterizations, suggesting that the domain of art is characterized by overlapping similarities, known asfamily resemblance.[60]
Theontology of art seeks to discern the fundamentalcategories of being to which all artworks belong.[g] Universalists argue that artworks areuniversals—general or repeatable entities that can have several instances at the same time. For example, a novel can have many copies, a film can have many screenings, and a photo can have many prints. One version of this view distinguishes artworks astypes from their instances, which are considered tokens of this type. Particularists reject the idea that artworks are universals, arguing instead that they areparticulars or unique concrete entities. For them, if there are several instances then the artwork is the collection or sum of all instances. According to this view,Alfred Stieglitz's photographThe Steerage is not a type underlying its prints but rather the collection or sum of all prints together.[62]
A similar discussion addresses whether artworks arematerial objects, which exist independent of observers, orintentional objects, which exist in the experience of observers.[63] Pluralists argue that different types of artworks belong to distinct ontological categories. Contextualists accept this view and further propose that the ontological category depends on the context of discussion.[64] Deflationism is skeptical about the fundamental existence of artworks in any form. It acknowledges that the termart may be practically useful in everyday language but rejects that it refers to any fundamental entities of reality.[65]
Some categorizations of art forms focus on the medium used to express artistic ideas, such as the use of oil paint.[66]
Artworks are categorized in various ways. Some distinctions focus on themedium used to express artistic ideas. For example, paintings typically usepaint, such asoil oracryl paint, which is distributed on a surface, whereas dance involves bodily movements. Similarly, music is performed using instruments and voice to produce sounds, and literature relies on language. Hybrid forms likeopera and film combine several of these elements.[67] Another distinction is between performance works and object works. Performance works, like a song performed on stage, are dynamically enacted in time, whereas object works, like a painting, have a more static nature.[68] Artworks can also be classified by style, such asimpressionism andsurrealism, and by their intended purpose, like political andreligious art.[69]
The meaning of an artwork is what is involved in understanding it or comprehending what it communicates, encompassing factors such as representation and expression. Certain aspects of meaning may be directly accessible while others require in-depth interpretation, for example, to grasp symbolic ormetaphorical elements. Understanding influences aesthetic experience and for certain artworks, a comprehensive understanding may be required to fully appreciate them.[70] One approach to the analysis of meaning is the distinction betweenform and content. Content refers to what is presented, such as the depicted topic, expressed ideas, and conceptual messages. Form refers to how the content is presented, such as medium, technique, composition, andstyle. Form encompasses diverse modes of presentation in different art forms, like color and spatial arrangement in painting,harmony andrhythm in music, andnarrative voice and plot structure in literature.[71]
Representation is a depiction of real or imagined entities. For example, aportrait painting represents a person, while afantasy novel represents an imaginary chain of events. Similarity is a crucial element in many forms of artistic representation, meaning that the artwork resembles the depicted entity. However, representation can also happen through other means, such as conventionalsymbols and established codes. It is particularly prevalent in some art forms and styles, such asclassical art andrealism. Sinceantiquity, representation has been a key concept intheories of art, such as Plato's idea of defining art as imitation. However, it is controversial whether representation plays a central role in all art forms, including music[h] andabstract modern art.[74]
Expression is the conveyance of psychological states, such asemotions,moods, and attitudes. For example, a painter may depict a barren landscape in muted colors to expresssadness, while a musician might use a fast tempo and upbeat melody to convey excitement. The expressed mental states often align with the artist's personal experience. However, this is not necessarily the case and artists may explore psychological states they observed in others or entirely fictional experiences. An artwork can express a mental state like sadness by evoking it in the experience of the audience. Alternatively, the expression can also happen if observers recognize the presence of sadness in the artwork even if they do not personally feel it. Expression theories consider expression a core feature of artworks. They characterize artworks as expressions of the artist's mind, focusing oncreativity andoriginality in the manifestation of aesthetic experiences.[75]
The process ofinterpretation is the attempt to uncover[i] the meaning of an artwork to understand its significance and value. In the widest sense, interpretation encompasses any way of assigningmeaning, including obvious descriptions of depicted entities and explanations ofliteral word meanings. In philosophy of art, the term is typically used in a more narrow sense for assignments of meaning that involve deeper analysis and creative thought. Interpretations aim to discover underlying aspects that are relevant to the understanding and appreciation of the artwork.[77] The termsinterpretation andcriticism are sometimes used interchangeably. However, criticism is typically associated with more components, like a general description of the criticized artwork and a classification of style andgenre. Criticism also explains the art-historical background and evaluates positive and negative qualities.[78]
Critics sometimes propose conflicting interpretations of the same artwork. According to critical monism, there is only one comprehensive correct interpretation, implying that conflicting interpretations cannot both be correct. Critical pluralism, by contrast, asserts that there can be different but equally valid interpretations and that it is not always possible to determine which of two conflicting interpretations is superior. A similar issue involves whether interpretations can be true or false in an objective sense.[79]
Various frameworks of interpretation have been proposed. According tointentionalism, the meaning of an artwork is determined by theauthor's intent—their reasons and motives that led to the creation of the artwork.[j] This typically involves analyzing the ideas the artist aimed to express but can also include abiographical analysis to learn about psychological and social circumstances in the artist's life.[81]
Intentionalism is a controversial theory, termedintentional fallacy by its critics. Some objections point to cases where the author's intention cannot be known, where the author themselves cannot be identified, or where no traditional author exists, as artworks created byartificial intelligence. In these cases, meaning would be inaccessible or non-existent.[k] Other objections assert that an artist may fail to accurately express their intention or may manifest unintended aesthetic features, suggesting that an artwork can contain both less and more than the artist intended.[83]
An alternative to intentionalism argues that meaning is determined by artistic, stylistic, linguistic, and other culturalconventions. For example, linguistic conventions determine the literal meanings of words and thereby influence the overall meaning of a poem. Another framework holds that meaning is shaped by how the audience, rather than the author, interprets or would interprets the intention underlying the work.[84] Artistic formalism proposes a different approach by focusing interpretation exclusively on formal or perceptual features of artworks.[85]
Aestheticism and instrumentalism are theories about the value of art. Aestheticism asserts that the primary value of art lies in its intrinsic aesthetic merits, independent of any external purposes. This idea of the autonomy of art is expressed in the slogan "art for art's sake". Strong forms of aestheticism not only disregard external purposes but see them as detrimental influences that undermine artistic integrity. Instrumentalism, by contrast, explains the value of art by the effects it has on other domains. It understands art as a means to things such asmoral education,spiritual growth,therapeutic benefits, andsocial cohesion.[86]
The individual arts are diverse practices or disciplines in the domain of art. They encompass a wide range of fields, including traditionally established forms such as painting, music, and literature, as well as newer types like video games.[87] One classification divides them intovisual arts,literary arts, andperformance arts. However, the boundaries between these categories are not always clear, and alternative classifications have been proposed.[88]
Dance is a performance art involving a series of bodily movements.[89]
Painting is a visual art in which a painter applies colors to a surface. It allows for a diverse range of motives and styles, and is often considered a paradigm form of art.[90] The representation of real entities plays a central role in many forms of painting, ranging from landscapes and people to historic events. This process involves artistic choices that go beyond simple replication, such as guiding the viewer's attention to specific aspects or highlighting important but easily overlooked features.[91] The issue of representation is also crucial inphotography, a visual art shaped by technological developments incamera design andediting processes. A key topic in the philosophy of photography concerns its mechanical manner of authentically representing real objects, frequently drawing parallels and distinctions with painting. The status of photographs as true artworks is disputed, with critics arguing that the mechanical nature of capturing images lacks the necessary artistic creativity.[92]
Music is a performance art in which sounds are combined to create aesthetic patterns, relying on aspects such asmelody andrhythm. Unlike painting and photography, music is typically less associated with objective representation, having a closer link to the expression of emotions.[l] A key discussion in thephilosophy of music revolves around thedefinition of music or the criteria under which a combination of sounds is music. Proposals range from objective criteria, such as the organization of sounds, to subjective criteria, like the way sounds are interpreted or experienced.[95]Dance is another performance art in which dancers perform a series of bodily movements, often following achoreography. It is typically accompanied by music and shares with music an emphasis on expressive features.[96]
Architecture is the art or craft of designing and building, encompassing a wide range of structures frommonuments andcathedrals toskyscrapers and residential homes. It typically combines aesthetic with functional goals, seeking to create buildings that are both visually appealing and practically useful. This dual nature is a central topic of thephilosophy of architecture, with one theory suggesting that mere buildings can be distinguished from artistic architecture by the presence of decorative elements.[98]Sculpture is another art form that, like architecture, involves the creation of three-dimensional works. Sculptures are usually static objects made of robust materials like stone, metal, and wood. However, the field of sculpture is broader and covers diverse three-dimensional objects, includingkinetic sculptures. Key discussions in the philosophy of sculpture address the definition, representational aspects, and aesthetic features of sculptures as well as the influence of the chosen material.[99]
Literature has language as its primary medium. In its widest sense, literature encompasses any written document. However, the term is typically used in a more narrow sense in aesthetics for forms of writing that belong to thehigh arts, such as poems,novels, anddrama. Literature as an art is often characterized by its deliberate, elaborate, and organized use of language, but there is no universally accepted demarcation between artistic literature and other forms of writing.[100]Poetry is a distinct form of literature often written inverses composed of several lines that may follow specific patterns, such asmeter andrhyme. Many poems are characterized by a deliberate economical use of language that seeks to evoke specific experiences while being difficult toparaphrase.[101]
Theater is a performance art that combines elements from other art forms. It typically includes a carefully prepared set or stage where actors perform, usually incorporating storytelling and sound design to create immersive experiences. Theater is performed before a live audience, which can create a sense of immediacy that is less prevalent in related art forms, such as film.[102]Film also integrates aspects from various artistic disciplines but relies more heavily on technological means of recording and editing. Films can involve actors but may also includeanimated characters ordocument real-life events. They are normally the result of collaborative efforts of many people, which complicates the identification of a singular author in the traditional sense.[103]
Video games are a more recent form of art. Like theater and film, they usually blend visual, auditory, and narrative elements. They typically stand out through their emphasis on player interaction, allowing active exploration of and engagement with thegame world.[104] The status of films and video games as serious forms of art is disputed. Proponents tend to emphasize their aesthetic qualities, while critics often point to their association withmass production andpopular culture as counterarguments.[105] For video games, a related debate centers on the elements of competition and winning, questioning whether these elements run counter to the spirit of art.[106]
Aesthetic phenomena are investigated in diverse fields. They cover the relation between aesthetics and other branches of philosophy, scientific inquiry usingempirical methods, comparisons of different artistic traditions, and the study of aesthetic elements in specific areas of life.[107][m]
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studiesmoral phenomena in general and rightbehavior in particular. Artworks can have various ethical consequences by influencing how people feel, perceive, and evaluate their circumstances. For example, artworks can glorify violence and reinforce biases, just as they can inspire empathy and challenge societal norms. As a result, art is also relevant to the field of politics since it can steer political sentiment to legitimize authority or mobilize resistance, thereby influencing voter attitudes. However, artworks can also explore morally relevant topics without expressing a clear positive or negative evaluation.[109]
Since both ethics and aestheticsdeal with values, philosophers seek to clarify the relation between moral and aesthetic values, proposing diverse theories of their interaction.[110] Ethicism asserts that the moral value of an artwork can increase its aesthetic value, while ethical defects may undermine itsartistic merit. This view is reversed by immoralism, which suggests that in some cases, moral flaws enhance aesthetic experience. Autonomism rejects both positions, arguing that these domains of evaluation are independent.[111]
Scientific approaches rooted inpsychology and related fields employ empirical methods to conduct inquiries and justify hypotheses.[112] Thepsychology of aesthetics examines the mental processes involved in the perception and appreciation of beauty and art, using methods such asexperimentation,observation, andsurveys.[113]
Experimental aesthetics is an early and influential approach pioneered byGustav Fechner. It follows a bottom-upmethodology that starts with humansensation, investigating preferences to simple physical stimuli, such as basic colors and shapes.[114]Gestalt psychology relies on a more holistic outlook, examining how composition and object placement influence aesthetic experience, like the relation between balanced organization and a sense of calm. Some works, such asDaniel Berlyne's approach, shift the focus from perception to emotion, suggesting that features like novelty and complexity cause arousal and that the right amount of arousal is pleasurable.[115]
Psychological analysis also examines the temporal structure of aesthetic experiences of art. One outlook identifies two phases: an initial first impression in which the observer forms a rough general idea of the artwork's topic, structure, and meaning, followed by a focal analysis of more specific features.[116] Research further explores how circumstances influence aesthetic experience, like the contrast between encountering a painting in a museum or a shopping mall. In addition to physical circumstances, social and personal factors also influence aesthetic experience, such asgroup dynamics, prior knowledge, and themotivation for seeking the experience.[117]
Evolutionary psychology examines the evolutionary function of aesthetic sensitivities, like preferences for environments conducive to survival, such as landscapes resembling the Africansavannah.[118]
Evolutionary psychology analyzesmental phenomena as products ofnatural selection. It asserts thatgenetic variations responsible for new capacities are passed on to future generations if they enhancesurvival and reproduction. Adopting this approach,evolutionary aesthetics interprets beauty and other aesthetic experiences as adaptive traits that serve diverse functions.[119] Examples are aesthetic preferences for environments conducive to survival, such as landscapes resembling the Africansavannah, andsexual selection by identifying genetically fit mates.[120] By focusing on the relatively permanent biological nature of humans, evolutionary psychology sees aesthetic values as universal or transcultural patterns of taste and appreciation, contrasting with theories in the philosophy of art that understand aesthetic values as cultural constructs.[121]
Neuroaesthetics appliesneuroscientific insights and methods to study the relation between brain activity and aesthetic experience. Aesthetic experiences arise from diverse brain processes responsible for organizing sensory stimuli, forming cognitive interpretations, and generating emotional responses. Neuroaesthetics examines these processes using various methods, includingneuroimaging techniques likefMRI. In one type of experiment, participants view diverse artworks, some considered beautiful and others ugly. By comparing brain responses measured through neuroimaging, researchers can discern, for example, that the brain area known as theorbitofrontal cortex is more active when viewing beautiful paintings.[122]
Cognitive science employs an interdisciplinary approach to study mental phenomena by examining how they access and transforminformation. An influential theory, suggested byErnst Gombrich, analyzes aesthetic experience through the interplay of low-level and high-level information processes: human sensation provides low-level information, which is organized and interpreted using high-level conceptual background knowledge.[123] Specific frameworks in cognitive science have also been used to analyze aesthetic phenomena. For instance, themodularity of mind—the hypothesis that the mind is composed of mental modules that function independently—has been employed to explain that paintings can represent real objects by triggering the same mental modules responsible for therecognition of real objects.[124]
Comparative aesthetics examines diverse aesthetic traditions, analyzing the similarities and differences in their standards of beauty and theoretical approaches.[125] For example, the focus inWestern aesthetics on high art and its separation from everyday affairs is not common in most other traditions, for which art is typically closely integrated with practical functions in everyday life, including religion andmoral education.[126] Artistic differences between different traditions also encompass dominant media, common styles, and chosen motifs.[127]
The comparison of cultural products from different traditions presents various conceptual challenges associated with tradition-specific aesthetic concepts and standards of evaluation. The uncritical application of standards from one tradition to evaluate the works of another can result incultural imperialism.[128] However, these differences also provide opportunities to artists and philosophers to incorporate new elements and explore novel perspectives.[129]
Indian aesthetics draws a close connection between artistic activity and religious practice. It argues that artistic expression is aspiritual endeavor that should be informed by knowledge of theself andreality, expressdevotion to the divine, andavoid attachments to the fruits of the activity.[130] Indian aesthetics analyzes art in terms of basic life emotions, calledrasas, such as delight, humor, sadness, and anger. It sees art as aplay that imitates reality by conveying experiences of the rasas. Its focus is on the universal expressions of human emotional life rather than person-specific feelings. This school of thought identifies artistic creativity as the ability to harness the full potential of the medium, like colors, sounds, and words, to convey experiential universals. For the audience, it recommends an aesthetic attitude characterized by a psychic distance from private concerns to transcend the personal self and become receptive to universal elements.[131]
Chinese aesthetics emphasizes the spontaneous nature of artistic creativity and its connection to the moral and spiritual domains. It argues that art should foster harmony within society and align with thenatural order of the universe. In this role, art is both self-expression andself-cultivation aimed to promote social well-being.[133] The main focus of Chinese aesthetics is on poetry, painting, andcalligraphy, known as thethree perfections.[134] This tradition influencedJapanese aesthetics, which is characterized by its interest in nature. Different art styles in this tradition are shaped by religious outlooks, particularlyShinto andBuddhism. Japanese theories of art stress the interrelation between the experience of the artist and the response of the audience.[135]
Islamic philosophers see art as a means of communicating philosophical and religious truths, making them accessible to the general public without requiring abstract theoretical thought. Thinkers such asAl-Farabi andAvicenna argued that imagination rather than reasoning underlies artistic creation and appreciation. According to this view, art imitates reality and evokes emotions to convey underlying truths and positively influence behavior.[136] Religious teachings play a central role in Islamic aesthetics. For example, the belief thatAllah is transcendent and boundless has resulted in theavoidance of figurative depictions and the emphasis onabstract art forms.[137][n]
African aesthetics emphasizes the intuitive and emotional nature of art, highlighting its communal function in social life. Early scholarship on this tradition was typically conducted from anethnocentric perspective using Western aesthetic standards to interpret and evaluate African art. This usually resulted in the portrayal of African artworks as exotic curiosities that lack the sophistication of high art. The emergence ofindigenous scholarship in the 20th century sought to correct this interpretation, arguing that the emphasis on moral, emotional, and intuitive aspects reflects different artistic standards rather than a deficiency. This school of thought, often associated with the concept ofNégritude, focuses on the importance of feelings in contrast to abstraction and intellectual analysis.[139]
Environmental aesthetics deals with the appreciation of nature, including elements such as forests, mountain ranges, rivers, and flowers.[140] It encompasses both transient appearances, such as the fleeting beauty of a landscape during sunset, and enduring aspects, such as the majesty of a centuries-old tree.[141] This field focuses on sensory and formal qualities associated with beauty and related aesthetic qualities. It contrasts in this respect with the philosophy of art, which typically emphasizes the interpretation of underlying meanings associated with expression and representation.[142] However, some approaches to environmental aesthetics also consider the impact of background knowledge on the aesthetic experience of nature. For instance,ecological awareness of the intricate relationships within anecosystem can shape the appreciation of awoodland environment by understanding it as ahabitat of diverse species.[143]
Religious art serves specific religious functions, such as conveying moral teachings or aiding devotional practices.[144]
In its broadest sense, environmental aesthetics encompasses the appreciation of any environment, including those created by humans.[145] This inquiry is closely associated witheveryday aesthetics, which examines aesthetic phenomena encountered in daily life. Everyday aesthetics covers both public and private environments, ranging from modern cities and industrial sites to private homes and backyards, as well as personal adornments and consumer products, such as clothing, hairstyles, industrial design, and web design.[146] The aesthetics ofpopular art, a related discipline, investigates aesthetic qualities in popular culture and compares the evaluative standards of popular art with high orfine art. For example, it studies the contrast between commercial mass art and experimentalavant-garde and explores specific types of popular art, such askitsch.[147]
Art plays a central role in the field ofreligion and manifests in many forms, including paintings, sculptures, architecture, music, dance, and literature. Its key characteristic comes from its religious function, such as conveying theological and moral teachings, representing symbolic truths, inspiring religious experiences, and aiding devotional practices. Religious art is part of allmajor religions and was the dominant art form duringancient andmedieval times. However, its influence began to wane in themodern period due tosecularization. This shift is also reflected in developments in the philosophy of art that introduced a focus on disinterestedness and the autonomy of aesthetic experience from external purposes, including religious goals.[148]
Various theories of aesthetics are associated with specific philosophical schools of thought.Marxist aesthetics examines the relation between art,class structure, andsocial ideology, exploring how art can enforce or challenge established power hierarchies.[149]Feminist aesthetics criticizes male biases in aesthetic theory and artistic practice while exploring alternatives. It investigates unfair social institutions and aesthetic standards that disadvantage women and exclude them from the art world. An example is themale gaze—a cultural phenomenon that treats women as objects of male spectatorship rather than as artistic creators.[150]Postmodern aesthetics is a diverse movement that challenges established concepts and theories in the field of aesthetics. It typically rejects the focus on disinterested pleasure, the autonomy of art from other domains, and the distinction between high and popular art. It tends to promote apluralism that embraces diversity, playfulness, andirony.[151]
The termmathematical beauty refers to aesthetic qualities of abstract mathematical concepts and theories. For instance, amathematical proof may be considered beautiful if it demonstrates a profound insight in an effective manner or reveals an underlying unity of seemingly disparate mathematical ideas.[153]
Computer art involves the use of computers in the creation of artworks.[o] It can take many forms, ranging from minor digital enhancements of existing artworks to entirely new creations generated using complexalgorithms. Its abstract nature based on symbolic representation and manipulation of electronic signals distinguishes computer art from traditional forms of art, which rely on more tangible media. This medium offers new artistic possibilities, such asvirtual reality andinteractivity.[155] Rapid developments inartificial intelligence in the 21st century have significantly impacted computer art. They include the emergence ofgenerative models—systems that aretrained on existing media to create new texts, images, music, or videos in response toverbal descriptions of the intended result. Examples includeChatGPT,Stable Diffusion,MuseNet, andRunwayML.[156]
Meta-aesthetics examines the fundamental assumptions and concepts underlying aesthetics. It asks about the existence of aesthetic facts, the meaning of aesthetic statements, and the ways of acquiring aesthetic knowledge. A central meta-aesthetic debate betweenrealism andanti-realism addresses whether there are mind-independent aesthetic facts. A related discussion betweencognitivism andnon-cognitivism considers whether aesthetic statements can be objectively true or primarilyexpress personal emotions.[157]
Aesthetics has its roots inancient thought, which typically interpreted beauty as ametaphysical phenomenon associated with the order of the cosmos.[159] Inancient Greek philosophy, early explorations of the nature of beauty are found inPythagorean philosophy in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. This tradition proposed that beauty arises from the proportion and harmony between different elements, an idea later also examined by theStoics.[160]Plato (427–347 BCE) analyzed pure beauty as animmutable form that exists independent of matter. He argued that material entities are beautiful if they participate in the form of beauty. Plato understood art as acraft that seeks toimitate and represent material entities. He acknowledged that art has somedidactic value but was overall critical of it, asserting that its derivative nature, based on imitation of sensible features, cannot lead to true knowledge.[161]
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) examined aesthetics through the lens of poetry. He agreed with Plato's idea that art is a form of imitation but adopted a more positive outlook, proposing that it can reveal universal truths. Aristotle suggested that successful artistic imitation is pleasurable and can have therapeutic orcathartic effects. By linking this pleasure to beauty, he tried to explain why the imitation of unpleasurable phenomena, liketragic stories, can be enjoyable.[162] Also influenced by Plato,Plotinus (204–270 CE) argued that beauty is not based on sensory symmetries or simple proportions but embodies an underlying order, harmony, and unity associated withthe ultimate source of creation.[163]
During themedieval period, the rise ofChristianity led Western aesthetic thinkers to blend ancient Greek thought with religious teachings, often in the form of philosophicaltheology.[166] Influenced by Plato and Plotinus,Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) explored the distinction between artistic creation, which transforms matter, and divine creation, which brings forthexistence out of nothing. He thought that all beauty originates from God and analyzed it in terms of unity, equality, number, proportion, and order.[167]Thomas Aquinas defined beauty as what brings pleasure upon perception. For him, the mind plays a central role in this process since beauty lies in the immaterial form of the perceived object that the mind recognizes in the sensory data. Aquinas saw beauty as abasic category of being and identified it with proportion, radiance, and integrity.[168]
Al-Farabi saw beauty as a divine attribute of Allah.[169]
An integration of Greek philosophy and religious thought also happened in theIslamic world.Al-Farabi (c. 878–950 CE) associated beauty with pleasure and saw it as a degree of perfection and a divine attribute ofAllah.Avicenna (980–1037 CE) distinguished sensible from intelligible beauty and explored psychological processes underlying aesthetic judgments, such as the role of imagination.[170]
Meanwhile in India, the rasa theory of art expanded to also encompassdevotional practices, including efforts to portray or evoke profound religious experiences of the union with the divine.[171] For example,Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1025 CE) elaborated the spiritual dimension of the rasa theory, drawing a sharp distinction betweenordinary worldly emotions and rasas as transcendent aesthetic emotions.[172]
In Chinese thought,Xie He (c. 5th to 6th centuries CE) combinedDaoist and Confucian ideas, suggesting that artists align withthe natural order of the universe and spontaneously express the movement of life in their artworks. He also proposed a set of basic principles of painting.[173]Guo Xi (c. 1020–1090 CE) argued that artworks reflect the moral character and spiritual outlook of the artist, which he saw as a central factor of the artwork's aesthetic value.[174] During this period, the growing influence ofBuddhism on Chinese aesthetic thought led to an artistic shift from objective reality to subjective experiences as a result of Buddhist teachings on the illusory nature of reality.[175]
The medieval period in the West came to an end with the emergence of theRenaissance starting in the 15th century. This change led to the revival of classical aesthetic ideals whilesecularization paved the way forrationalist inquiries into general laws of beauty andempiricist analyses of sensory and emotional experiences in the subsequentAge of Enlightenment.[176]
David Hume understood beauty as a pleasurable sentiment and explored taste as the inner sense responsible for this sentiment.[177]
Modern aesthetics emerged in the 18th century as philosophers systematically engaged with its foundational concepts while carefully formulating and critiquing major positions.[178] A key step in this process happened through the philosophy ofAlexander Baumgarten (1714–1762), who first conceived aesthetics as a distinct field of inquiry: the science of sensory cognitions or the study of what is sensed and imagined.[179] In British philosophy,Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746) followed ideas ofthe third Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713) and provided an early theory of taste, conceptualizing it as an inner sense responsible for aesthetic apprehension.[180] This outlook inspiredDavid Hume (1711–1776) to develop a subjective theory of beauty, understanding it as a pleasurable sentiment caused by perceptions. He integrated this perspective with the existence of intersubjective standards of beauty as principles of taste governing which objects are experienced as beautiful.[181]
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) expanded Hume's idea that aesthetic judgments are both subjective and universally valid, arguing that the underlying pleasure must be disinterested to follow universal standards. According to Kant, this type of pleasure comes from a free play in which the mental faculties of imagination and understanding harmoniously interact.[182] In response to earlier theories byEdmund Burke (1729–1797), Kant also examined the sublime as a distinct aesthetic quality.[183]
Kant's thought inspired diverse developments inGerman philosophy.Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) saw art as a unifying phenomenon that synthesizes different basic human drives in a type of play.[184]F. W. J. von Schelling (1775–1854) shared a similar perspective, arguing that art reconciles opposites and reveals the underlying unity of the self and nature.[185]G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831) explored aesthetics through his philosophical system ofabsolute idealism, seeing artistic beauty as the sensory manifestation of truth. He analyzed art history from antiquity to his present day as a series of progressive stages of this manifestation.[186]
CombiningKantian and Indian philosophy,Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) saw disinterested aesthetic experience as a suspension of the will, resulting in a temporary peace of mind by interrupting the cycle of striving and suffering.[187] He inspired the Chinese philosopherWang Guowei (1877–1927), who integrated Schopenhauer's ideas with Buddhist thought. Wang viewed the goal of art as the creation of worlds within the world, which are open to disinterested reflection.[188]Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) rejected the disinterestedness of aesthetic experience and the autonomy of art from other domains. Instead, he considered art an expression of the struggle betweenopposing life forces and saw art as a vehicle of transformation andlife affirmation.[189]
Romanticist thought, expressed in the works ofJ. W. von Goethe (1749–1832),William Wordsworth (1770–1850), andSamuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834), emphasized artistic originality, creativity, and the expression of profound feelings. It saw artworks as products of humangenius that defy rule-based understanding.[194] This school of thought inspired the theory of expressionism, which asserts that the primary function of art is to communicate emotions and other mental states. It was explored by thinkers such asLeo Tolstoy (1828–1910),Benedetto Croce (1866–1952), andR. G. Collingwood (1889–1943).[195] Intentionalism, a closely related position, focuses on the author's intent as the source of meaning of artworks.Monroe Beardsley (1915–1985) opposed this view, arguing that meaning is not fixed by the author's intent.[196]Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) andCarl Jung (1875–1961) interpreted art through apsychoanalytic perspective as expressions ofthe unconscious, an approach also later explored byRichard Wollheim (1923–2005).[197]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,aestheticism became a prominent view in English-speaking philosophy. For example,Walter Pater (1839–1894) andOscar Wilde (1854–1900) proposed thatart is an end in itself without an ulterior purpose.[198]Pragmatists rejected this outlook and the idea that aesthetic experience is disinterested. For instance,John Dewey (1859–1952) proposed that the value of art lies in the unique experiences it provides, which can lead to individual and societal improvements.[199]Formalism became another influential theory of art in the early 20th century. It dismisses the focus on expressive and representational aspects and argues instead that artworks are defined by formal features, like the arrangement of perceptual qualities.Clive Bell (1881–1964), a major proponent of this view, termed this arrangement "significant form".[200]
Martin Heidegger proposed that artworks can reveal truths about human existence and provide new perspectives of understanding.[201]
The emergence ofDadaism andconceptual art challenged traditional definitions of art based on intrinsic features of artworks.[202] As a result, anti-essentialism, which understands art as a social construct without an inherentessence, gained prominence in the second half of the 20th century, exemplified in the theories ofFrank Sibley (1923–1996) andNelson Goodman (1906–1998).[203] These developments inspiredArthur C. Danto (1924–2013) andGeorge Dickie (1926–2020) to propose institutional definitions, arguing that social conventions set by theart world determine which objects are artworks.[204]Mary Mothersill (1923–2008) challenged these developments. She aimed to restore earlier conceptions of beauty associated with Aquinas, Hume, and Kant, focusing on the apprehension of aesthetic qualities.[205]
Incontinental philosophy, the school ofphenomenology explored diverse aspects of the immediate experience of art. For example, it examined how artworks can depict unreal objects, how imagination is involved in the process, and how art can reveal features of reality.[206] This tradition is closely related toexistentialist aesthetics, which views artworks as expressions of human freedom that can authentically portray central aspects of thehuman condition.[207] The philosophy ofMartin Heidegger (1889–1976) influenced both traditions. He criticized the focus on disinterested pleasure found in modern philosophy of art, arguing that artworks can reveal truths about human existence and provide new perspectives of understanding.[208] Heidegger's studentHans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002) further explored the relation between art and truth, examining aesthetic experience and traditional theories through phenomenological analysis andhermeneutic interpretation.[209]
Postmodern thinkers, likeRoland Barthes (1915–1980) andJacques Derrida (1930–2004), challenged the separation of art from everyday life and the idea that artworks have a stable meaning or universal value. They suggested instead that artistic merit depends on historical and cultural contexts.[210] Starting in the 1970s,feminist perspectives in aesthetics challenged male-centric theories and practices within aesthetic philosophy and the art world. For example,Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) andLuce Irigaray (1930–present) explored how feminine perspectives are marginalized by masculine standards.[211]
^Aesthetic imagination is a creative process that explores the possibilities of aesthetic experience as a free flow of thought not limited to factual reality. It is relevant both to the appreciation and artistic creation of beauty.[27]
^In biology, the termtaste has a more narrow meaning limited to thegustatory system.[42]
^Taste is also influenced by a person's upbringing, leading to distinct aesthetic preferences that can reflect theirsocial class.[43] For example, the sociologistPierre Bourdieu argued that taste is mostly determined by one's upbringing, social class, and cultural context, leading to significant differences inworking class andupper class tastes.[44]
^One classification divides definitions of art into functional and procedural definitions based on whether they focus on the function of artworks or the rules and procedures used to create and interpret them.[58] Another classification distinguishes between essentialist, contextualist, and constructivist conceptions, which emphasize intrinsic features, circumstances of origin, or interpretational practices, respectively.[59]
^This inquiry is closely related to definitions of art but not identical, since artworks may belong to the same ontological category as other things. Definitions, by contrast, usually seek to identify features that distinguish artworks from all other things.[61]
^Some theorists argue that music uses tempo, tone, and volume to represent emotions.[73]
^Some philosophers argue that interpretation does not uncover meaning but creates it.[76]
^Intentionalism focuses on the author's original intent rather than their retrospective interpretation, which can overlap but are not necessarily identical.[80]
^Formalists downplay the focus on expressive qualities, such asEduard Hanslick, who argues that music is primarily a progression of sounds rather than an emotional story.[93]Susanne K. Langer sought to establish a connection between the emotional and symbolic dimensions of music, asserting that musical forms are symbols that convey the artist's knowledge of feeling but have no conventionally fixed meanings.[94]
^Some philosophers use the termapplied aesthetics for attempts to apply general aesthetic principles to specific areas or practices, such as environmental and everyday aesthetics.[108]
^This influence can be seen in abstract patterns used in Islamic art, such as a single line that curls back into itself to represent Allah's unity and omnipresence.[138]
^In its broadest sense, computer art refers to anydigital art, including artworks that merely reproduce conventional art styles with digital means. In a more narrow sense, only artworks with characteristics not commonly associated with other art forms, such asinteractivity, are considered computer art.[154]
Korsmeyer & Weiser 2021, Lead section, § 1. Art and Artists: Historical Background, § 3. Aesthetic Categories and Feminist Critiques, § 5. The Body in Art and Philosophy
Argüello Manresa 2019, Lead section, § Feminist Critique of Philosophical Aesthetics, § Feminist Philosophy and Theory of the Arts
^Korsmeyer & Weiser 2021, Lead section, § 1. Art and Artists: Historical Background, § 3. Aesthetic Categories and Feminist Critiques, § 5. The Body in Art and Philosophy
Adajian, Thomas (2024)."The Definition of Art".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved29 June 2025.
Adajian, Thomas (2024a)."Notes to The Definition of Art".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved29 June 2025.
Audi, Robert (1999).The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-511-07417-2.
Bahm, Archie J. (1965). "Comparative Aesthetics".The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism.24 (1):109–119.doi:10.2307/428253.
Beardsley, Monroe C. (2006). "Aesthetics, History of". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Macmillan. pp. 41–63.ISBN978-0-02-865781-3.
Beauchamp, Tom L. (2005). "Aesthetics, Problems of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 13–16.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Bender, John W. (1995). "General but Defeasible Reasons in Aesthetic Evaluation: The Particularist/Generalist Dispute".The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism.53 (4):379–392.doi:10.2307/430973.JSTOR430973.
Binkley, Timothy (1998). "Computer Art". In Kelly, Michael (ed.).Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 412–414.ISBN0-19-512645-9.
Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2004).The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. Blackwell.ISBN1-4051-0679-4.
Carlson, Allen (2013). "47. Environmental Aesthetics". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 485–498.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Carroll, Noel (1998). "Film: Motion Pictures". In Kelly, Michael (ed.).Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 185–189.ISBN0-19-512645-9.
Celkyte, Aiste."Aesthetics, Ancient".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved18 July 2025.
Chaplin, Adrienne Dengerink (2013). "13. Phenomenology: Merleau-Ponty and Sartre". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 126–136.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Chatterjee, Anjan (2012). "12. Neuroaesthetics: Growing Pains of a New Discipline". In Shimamura, Arthur P.; Palmer, Stephen E. (eds.).Aesthetic Science: Connecting Minds, Brains, and Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 299–317.ISBN978-0-19-973214-2.
Davey, Nicholas; Nielsen, Cynthia (2023)."Gadamer's Aesthetics".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved21 September 2025.
Davies, Stephen (2013). "21. Definitions of Art". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 213–223.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Davies, David (2013a). "22. Categories of Art". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 224–234.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Deranty, Jean-Philippe (2025)."Existentialist Aesthetics".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved17 July 2025.
Destrée, Pierre (2021)."Aristotle's Aesthetics".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved15 July 2025.
Deutsch, Eliot (1998). "Comparative Aesthetics". In Kelly, Michael (ed.).Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 409–412.ISBN0-19-512645-9.
Dutton, Denis (2013). "26. Aesthetic Universals". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 267–277.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Feagin, Susan L. (1999). "Aesthetic Property". In Audi, Robert (ed.).The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 11.ISBN978-0-511-07417-2.
Fenner, David E. W. (2003).Introducing Aesthetics. Praeger Publisher.ISBN0-275-97907-5.
Gardner, Sebastian (2003). "Aesthetics". In Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric (eds.).The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 231–256.ISBN0-631-21907-2.
Geller, Jeffrey L. (1993). "Painting, Parapraxes, and Unconscious Intentions".The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism.51 (3):377–387.doi:10.2307/431510.
Gilmore, Jonathan (2013). "36. Criticism". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 375–383.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Ginsborg, Hannah (2022)."Kant's Aesthetics and Teleology".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved27 June 2025.
Giovannelli, Alessandro (2017)."Goodman's Aesthetics".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved17 July 2025.
Gitomer, David L. (1998). "Indian Aesthetics". In Kelly, Michael (ed.).Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 482–490.ISBN0-19-512646-7.
Graham, Gordon (2005).Philosophy of the Arts: An Introduction to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge.ISBN0-203-69622-0.
Graham, Gordon (2013). "49. Art and Religion". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 509–518.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Guyer, Paul (1986). "Mary Mothersill's Beauty Restored".The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism.44 (3):245–255.doi:10.2307/429734.
Guyer, Paul (2006). "Aesthetics, History of [Addendum]". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Macmillan. pp. 63–72.ISBN978-0-02-865781-3.
Guyer, Paul (2020)."18th Century German Aesthetics".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved16 July 2025.
Haldane, John (2013). "3. Medieval aesthetics". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 25–35.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Hallen, Barry (1998a). "African Aesthetics". In Kelly, Michael (ed.).Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–42.ISBN0-19-512645-9.
Hamilton, James R. (2013). "52. Theater". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 543–553.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
HarperCollins (2022)."Aesthetics".The American Heritage Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved20 June 2025.
Hepburn, R. W. (2005). "Art and Morality". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–61.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Hoad, T. F. (1993).The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-283098-8.
Irvin, Sherri (2013). "58. Sculpture". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 606–615.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Janaway, C. (2005). "Value, aesthetic". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 941.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Janaway, C. (2005a). "Beauty". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 82–83.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Janaway, C. (2005b). "Aestheticism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 9.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Janaway, C. (2005c). "Death-of-the-Author Thesis". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 191.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Janaway, Christopher (2013). "1. Plato". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 3–12.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Jiang, Harry H.; Brown, Lauren; Cheng, Jessica; Khan, Mehtab; Gupta, Abhishek; Workman, Deja; Hanna, Alex; Flowers, Johnathan; Gebru, Timnit (2023). "AI Art and its Impact on Artists".Proceedings of the 2023 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society. Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 363–374.doi:10.1145/3600211.3604681.ISBN9798400702310.
Kania, Andrew (2013). "61. Music". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 639–648.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Korsmeyer, Carolyn (2010). "Taste, Food, and the Limits of Pleasure". In Shusterman, Richard; Tomlin, Adele (eds.).Aesthetic Experience. Routledge. pp. 127–142.ISBN978-1-134-18287-9.
Korsmeyer, Carolyn (2013). "25. Taste". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 257–266.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Korsmeyer, Carolyn; Weiser, Peg Brand (2021)."Feminist Aesthetics".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved17 July 2025.
Levinson, Jerrold (2005a). "Ethics and Aesthetics". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 270–271.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Lindauer, M.S. (2011). "Art, Artists, and Arts Audiences: Their Implications for the Psychology of Creativity". In Runco, Mark A.; Pritzker, Steven R. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Creativity. Elsevier. pp. 58–65.doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-375038-9.00012-1.ISBN978-0-12-375038-9.
Locher, Paul J. (2012). "7. Empirical Investigation of an Aesthetic Experience with Art". In Shimamura, Arthur P.; Palmer, Stephen E. (eds.).Aesthetic Science: Connecting Minds, Brains, and Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 163–188.ISBN978-0-19-973214-2.
Lyas, Colin A. (1998). "Croce, Benedetto". In Kelly, Michael (ed.).Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 474–476.ISBN0-19-512645-9.
McFee, Graham (2013). "62. Dance". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 649–660.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
McIver Lopes, Dominic (2013). "57. Painting". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 596–605.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Mee, Erin B. (2018). "21. Relishing Performance: Rasa as Participator Sense-making". In Kemp, Rick; McConachie, Bruce (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Theatre, Performance and Cognitive Science. Routledge.ISBN978-1-351-69036-2.
Merriam-Webster (2025)."Definition of Aesthetic".Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved20 June 2025.
Mikalonytė, Elzė Sigutė; Doran, Ryan; Liao, Shen-yi (2024)."Experimental Philosophy of Art and Aesthetics".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved9 July 2025.
Munro, Thomas; Scruton, Roger (2025)."Aesthetics".Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved19 June 2025.
Novitz, David (2013). "17. Postmodernism: Barthes and Derrida". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 170–178.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
OED staff (2025)."Aesthetics, n."Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Osborne, Peter; Charles, Matthew (2021)."Walter Benjamin".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved21 September 2025.
Peacocke, Antonia (2024)."Aesthetic Experience".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved24 June 2025.
Plato, Levno; Meskin, Aaron (2023). "Aesthetic Value". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.).Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 95–97.ISBN978-3-031-17298-4.
Poole, Simon Ellis; Scott, Alison Clare (2021). "National Arts and Wellbeing Policies and Implications for Wellbeing in Organizational Life". In Wall, Tony; Cooper, Cary L.; Brough, Paula (eds.).The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Wellbeing. SAGE Publications. pp. 383–398.ISBN978-1-5297-6097-2.
Robinson, Jenefer (2006). "Aesthetics, Problems of". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Macmillan. pp. 72–81.ISBN978-0-02-865781-3.
Rodríguez, Castro; José, Sixto (2012). "Ética y estética: Una relación ineludible".Revista Latinoamericana de Bioética.12 (1):62–69.ISSN1657-4702.
Rohrbaugh, Guy (2013). "23. Ontology of Art". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 235–245.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Sa, Rentuya; Alcock, Lara; Inglis, Matthew; Tanswell, Fenner Stanley (2024). "Do Mathematicians Agree about Mathematical Beauty?".Review of Philosophy and Psychology.15 (1):299–325.doi:10.1007/s13164-022-00669-3.
Sartwell, Crispin (2024)."Beauty".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved25 June 2025.
Saussy, Haun (1998). "Chinese Aesthetics". In Kelly, Michael (ed.).Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 363–367.ISBN0-19-512645-9.
Shelley, James (2013). "4. Empiricism: Hutcheson and Hume". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 36–45.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Shelley, James (2022)."The Concept of the Aesthetic".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved20 June 2025.
Shimamura, Arthur P. (2012). "1. Toward a Science of Aesthetics". In Shimamura, Arthur P.; Palmer, Stephen E. (eds.).Aesthetic Science: Connecting Minds, Brains, and Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–30.ISBN978-0-19-973214-2.
Tregenza, Bergeth (2005). "Taste". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 909.ISBN978-0-19-926479-7.
Viale, Claudio Marcelo; Campeotto, Fabio (2021). "Arte como experiencia. Pasado y presente".Ideas y Valores.70 (175):117–138.doi:10.15446/ideasyvalores.v70n175.66898.
Wartenberg, Thomas E. (2013). "12. Heidegger". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 116–125.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Wartenberg, Thomas (2025)."Philosophy of Film".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved6 July 2025.
Wilson, Dawn M. (2013). "56. Photography". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 585–595.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
Windle, Peter."Susanne K. Langer".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved21 September 2025.
Winters, Edward (2013). "60. Architecture". In Gaut, Berys; McIver Lopes, Dominic (eds.).The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 627–638.ISBN978-0-415-78286-9.
.jpg)
.jpg)
