The Adriatic contains more than 1,300 islands, mostly located along its eastern coast. It is divided into three basins, the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres (4,045 ft). The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto. Tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, althoughlarger amplitudes occur occasionally. The Adriatic'ssalinity is lower than the Mediterranean's because it collects a third of the fresh water flowing into the Mediterranean, acting as adilution basin. The surface water temperatures generally range from 30 °C (86 °F) in summer to 12 °C (54 °F) in winter, significantly moderating theAdriatic Basin's climate. The Adriatic Sea sits on theApulian or Adriatic Microplate. In theLate Oligocene, theItalian Peninsula first formed, separating the Adriatic Basin from the rest of the Mediterranean. The western coast isalluvial orterraced, while the eastern coast is highly indented with pronouncedkarstification. There are dozens ofmarine protected areas in the Adriatic, designed to protect the sea's habitats and biodiversity—more than 7,000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic, many of themendemic, rare and threatened ones.
The Adriatic's shores are populated by more than 3.5 million people; the largest cities areBari,Venice,Trieste andSplit. Early settlements on the Adriatic shores wereEtruscan,Illyrian, andGreek. By the 2nd century BC, the region was underRome's control. In theMiddle Ages, the sea was controlled, to a varying extent, by a series of states—most notably theByzantine Empire, theCroatian Kingdom, theRepublic of Venice, theHabsburg monarchy and theOttoman Empire. TheNapoleonic Wars resulted in theAustrian Empire gaining control of most of the eastern Adriatic shore and the Po Valley, while theKingdom of Italy gradually took control of the remaining Italian coast during the 19th century. Following the collapse ofAustria-Hungary in 1918, control of the eastern coast passed toYugoslavia and Albania, which agreed on their maritime boundaries with Italy in 1975 and 1992 respectively. AfterYugoslavia's dissolution during the 1990s, its four coastal successor states—Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro—continued to recognise the previous maritime border with Italy, but have disputed the borders between themselves.
Fisheries andtourism are significant sources of income along the Adriatic coast.Maritime transport is also a significant branch of the area's economy—there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than a milliontonnes of cargo per year. The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is thePort of Trieste, while thePort of Split is the largest by passengers served per year.
Theorigins of the nameAdriatic are linked to theIllyrian settlement ofAdria, which probably derives its name fromIllyrianadur 'water, sea'.[2] Inclassical antiquity, the sea was known asMare Adriaticum (Mare Hadriaticum, also sometimes simplified toAdria) or, less frequently, asMare Superum '[the] upper sea'.[3] The two terms were not synonymous, however.Mare Adriaticum generally corresponds to the Adriatic Sea's extent, spanning from theGulf of Venice to the Strait of Otranto. That boundary became more consistently defined by Roman authors—early Greek sources place the boundary between the Adriatic and Ionian seas at various places ranging from adjacent to theGulf of Venice to the southern tip of thePeloponnese, eastern shores ofSicily and western shores ofCrete.[4]Mare Superum on the other hand normally encompassed both the modern Adriatic Sea and the sea off the Apennine peninsula's southern coast, as far as theStrait of Sicily.[5] Another name used in the period wasMare Dalmaticum, applied to waters off the coast ofDalmatia orIllyricum.[6] During theearly modern period, the entire sea was also known as theGulf of Venice (Italian:golfo di Venezia),[7] althoughthat name is now informally applied only to the northern area of the sea, from Maestra Point in thePoDelta to Cape Kamenjak on theIstrian Peninsula.
The names for the sea in the languages of the surrounding countries includeAlbanian:Deti Adriatik;Emilian:Mèr Adriatic;Friulian:Mâr Adriatic;Greek:Αδριατική θάλασσα,romanized: Adriatikí thálassa;Istro Romanian:Marea Adriatică;Italian:Mare Adriatico;Serbo-Croatian:Jadransko more, Јадранско море;Slovene:Jadransko morje;Venetian:Mar Adriàtico. In Serbo-Croatian and Slovene, the sea is often referred to as simplyJadran.
The Adriatic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea,[8] bordered in the southwest by theApennine or Italian Peninsula, in the northwest by the Italian regions ofVeneto andFriuli-Venezia Giulia, and in the northeast bySlovenia,Croatia,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Montenegro, andAlbania—theBalkan peninsula. In the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to theIonian Sea at the 72-kilometre (45 mi) wideStrait of Otranto.[9] TheInternational Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the boundary between the Adriatic and the Ionian seas as a line running from theButrinto River's mouth (latitude 39°44'N) in Albania to the Karagol Cape inCorfu, through this island to the Kephali Cape (these two capes are in latitude 39°45'N), and on to theSanta Maria di Leuca Cape (latitude 39°48'N).[10] It extends 800 kilometres (500 mi) from the northwest to the southeast and is 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide. It covers 138,600 square kilometres (53,500 sq mi) and has a volume of 35,000 cubic kilometres (8,400 cu mi). The Adriatic extends northwest from40° to45°47' north, representing theMediterranean's northernmost portion.[9] The sea is geographically divided into the Northern Adriatic, Central (or Middle) Adriatic, and Southern Adriatic.[11]
The Adriatic Seadrainage basin encompasses 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi), yielding a land–sea ratio of 1.8. The drainage basin's mean elevation is 782 metres (2,566 ft) above sea level, with a mean slope of 12.1°.[12] Major rivers discharging into the Adriatic include the Po,Soča,Krka,Neretva,Drin,Buna, andVjosë.[13][14] In the late 19th century,Austria-Hungary established ageodetic network with anelevation benchmark using the average Adriatic Sea level at the Sartorio pier inTrieste,Italy. The benchmark was subsequently retained byAustria, adopted byYugoslavia, and retained by the states that emerged afterits dissolution.[15][16] In 2016, Slovenia adopted a new elevation benchmark referring to the upgradedtide gauge station in the coastal town ofKoper.[17]
The Alps, which also have a large meteorological impact on the Mediterranean, touch the Adriatic in the area around Trieste towardsDuino andBarcola.[18]
Bay of Kotor, aria in the Southern AdriaticGjipe Canyon in southern Albania, where the Adriatic Sea meets the Ionian Sea
Length in kilometres of Adriatic coastlines[19][20]
Notes:a The distance between the extreme points of each state's coastline,b Not including islands in coastal lagoons[21]
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi
The Adriatic Sea containsmore than 1,300 islands and islets, most along the Adriatic's eastern coast—especially in Croatia, with 1,246 counted.[22] The number includes islands, islets, and rocks of all sizes, including ones emerging atebb tide only.[23] The Croatian islands include the largest—Cres andKrk, each covering about the same area of 405.78 square kilometres (156.67 sq mi)—and the tallest—Brač, whose peak reaches 780 metres (2,560 ft) above sea level. The islands of Cres and the adjacentLošinj are separated only by a narrow navigable canal dug in the time ofclassical antiquity;[24] the original single island was known to the Greeks asApsyrtides.[25] The Croatian islands include 47permanently inhabited ones, the most populous among them being Krk,Korčula and Brač.[26] The islands along the Adriatic's western (Italian) coast are smaller and less numerous than those along the opposite coast; the best-known ones are the 117 islands on which the city ofVenice is built.[27] The northern shore of the Greek island ofCorfu also lies in the Adriatic Sea as defined by the IHO.[28] The IHO boundary places theDiapontia Islands (northwest of Corfu) in the Adriatic Sea.[10][29]
The Adriatic Sea's average depth is 259.5 metres (851 ft), and its maximum depth is 1,233 metres (4,045 ft); however, the North Adriatic basin rarely exceeds a depth of 100 metres (330 ft).[19] The North Adriatic basin, extending between Venice and Trieste towards a line connectingAncona andZadar, is only 15 metres (49 ft) deep at its northwestern end; it gradually deepens towards the southeast. It is the largest Mediterraneanshelf and is simultaneously adilution basin and a site of bottom water formation.[31] The Middle Adriatic basin is south of the Ancona–Zadar line, with the 270-metre (890 ft) deep Middle Adriatic Pit (also called the Pomo Depression or the Jabuka Pit). The 170-metre (560 ft) deep Palagruža Sill is south of the Middle Adriatic Pit, separating it from the 1,200-metre (3,900 ft) deep South Adriatic Pit and the Middle Adriatic basin from the South Adriatic Basin. Further on to the south, the sea floor rises to 780 metres (2,560 ft) to form the Otranto Sill at the boundary to the Ionian Sea. The South Adriatic Basin is similar in many respects to the Northern Ionian Sea, to which it is connected.[14] Transversely, the Adriatic Sea is also asymmetric: the Apennine peninsular coast is relatively smooth with very few islands and theMount Conero andGargano promontories as the only significant protrusions into the sea; in contrast, the Balkan peninsular coast is rugged with numerous islands, especially in Croatia. The coast's ruggedness is exacerbated by theDinaric Alps' proximity to the coast, in contrast to the opposite (Italian) coast where theApennine Mountains are further away from the shoreline.[32]
The coastal water dynamics are determined by the asymmetric coasts and the inflow of the Mediterranean seawater through the Straits of Otranto and further on along the eastern coast.[33] The smooth Italian coast (with very few protrusions and no major islands) allows the Western Adriatic Current to flow smoothly, which is composed of the relatively freshwater mass on the surface and the cold and dense water mass at the bottom.[34] The coastal currents on the opposite shore are far more complex owing to the jagged shoreline, several large islands and the proximity of the Dinaric Alps to the shore. The last produces significant temperature variations between the sea and the hinterland, which leads to the creation of local jets.[32] The tidal movement is normally slight, usually remaining below 30 centimetres (12 in). Theamphidromic point is at the mid-width east of Ancona.[35]
The normal tide levels are known to increase significantly in a conducive environment, leading tocoastal flooding; this phenomenon is most famously known in Italy—especially Venice—asacqua alta. Such tides can exceed normal levels by more than 140 centimetres (55 in),[36] with the highest tide level of 194 centimetres (76 in) observed on 4 November 1966.[37] Such flooding is caused by a combination of factors, including the alignment of theSun andMoon, meteorological factors such assirocco related storm surges,[38] and the basin's geometric shape (which amplifies or reduces the astronomical component). Moreover, the Adriatic's long and narrow rectangular shape is the source of an oscillating water motion (French:seiche) along the basin's minor axis.[39] Finally, Venice is increasingly vulnerable to flooding due to coastal area soilsubsidence.[40] Such unusually high tides resulting in flooding have also been observed elsewhere in the Adriatic Sea, and have been recorded in recent years in the towns ofKoper, Zadar andŠibenik as well.[41][42][43]
It is estimated that the Adriatic's entire volume is exchanged through the Strait of Otranto in 3.4±0.4 years, a comparatively short period. (For instance, approximately 500 years are necessary to exchange all theBlack Sea's water.) This short period is particularly important as the rivers flowing into the Adriaticdischarge up to 5,700 cubic metres per second (200,000 cu ft/s). This rate of discharge amounts to 0.5% of the total Adriatic Sea volume, or a 1.3-metre (4 ft 3 in) layer of water each year. The greatest portion of the discharge from any single river comes from thePo (28%),[44] with an average discharge from it alone of 1,569 cubic metres per second (55,400 cu ft/s).[45] In terms of the annual total discharge into the entire Mediterranean Sea, the Po is ranked second, followed by the Neretva andDrin, which rank as third and fourth.[46] Another significant contributor of freshwater to the Adriatic is thesubmarine groundwater discharge through submarine springs (Croatian:vrulja); it is estimated to comprise 29% of the total water flux into the Adriatic.[47] The submarine springs includethermal springs, discovered offshore near the town ofIzola. The thermal spring water is rich withhydrogen sulfide, has a temperature of 22 to 29.6 °C (71.6 to 85.3 °F), and has enabled the development of specific ecosystems.[48] The inflow of freshwater, representing a third of the freshwater volume flowing into the Mediterranean,[14] makes the Adriatic adilution basin for the Mediterranean Sea.[49] The Middle andSouth Adriatic Gyres (SAG), are significantcyclonic circulation features, with the former being intermittent and the latter permanent. The SAG measures 150 kilometres (93 miles) in diameter. It contributes to the flow ofbottom water from the Adriatic to theLevantine Basin through the Ionian Sea. Through that process, the Adriatic Sea produces most of the East Mediterranean deep water.[50]
The Adriatic's surface temperature usually ranges from 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F) in the summer, or 12 to 14 °C (54 to 57 °F) in the winter, except along the western Adriatic coast's northern part, where it drops to 9 °C (48 °F) in the winter. The distinct seasonal temperature variations, with a longitudinal gradient in the Northern and transversal gradient in the Middle and Southern Adriatic,[51] are attributed to the continental characteristics of the Adriatic Sea: it is shallower and closer to land than are oceans.[52] During particularly cold winters,sea ice may appear in the Adriatic's shallow coastal areas, especially in theVenetian Lagoon but also in isolated shallows as far south asTisno (south of Zadar).[53][54] The Southern Adriatic is about 8 to 10 °C (14 to 18 °F) warmer during the winter than the more northerly regions.[55] The Adriatic'ssalinity variation over the year is likewise distinct:[52] it ranges between 38 and 39 PSUs, somewhat higher than the range of 32 to 37 PSUs for the open ocean.[51] The southern Adriatic is subjected to saltier water from the Levantine Basin.[55]
The predominant winter winds are thebora andsirocco (calledjugo along the eastern coast). The bora is significantly conditioned by wind gaps in the Dinaric Alps bringing cold and dry continental air; it reaches peak speeds in the areas of Trieste,Senj, andSplit, with gusts of up to 180 kilometres per hour (97 kn; 110 mph). The sirocco brings humid and warm air, often carryingSaharan sand causingrain dust.[58]
Climate characteristics of some major Adriatic cities
Sources: 2011 Croatian census,[60] Italian National Institute of Statistics (2011),[61] 2011 Albanian Census[62]
On the Adriatic Sea's coasts and islands, there are numerous small settlements and a number of larger cities. Among the largest are (counterclockwise) Trieste, Venice, Rimini, Ancona, Pescara and Bari in Italy; Vlorë and Durrës in Albania; Split, Zadar and Rijeka in Croatia; Koper in Slovenia. In total, more than 3.5 million people live on the Adriatic coasts.[63] There are also some larger cities that are located very near the coast, such as the Italian cities ofRavenna andLecce.
Venice, which was originally built on islands off the coast, is most at risk due to subsidence, but the threat is present in the Podelta as well. The causes are a decrease insedimentation rate due to loss of sediment behind dams, the deliberate excavation of sand for industrial purposes, agricultural use of water, and removal of ground water.[64][65]
The sinking of Venice slowed afterartesian wells were banned in the 1960s, but the city remains threatened by theacqua alta floods. Recent studies have suggested that the city is no longer sinking,[66][67] but a state of alert remains in place. In May 2003, then-Prime MinisterSilvio Berlusconi inaugurated theMOSE project (Italian:Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of inflatable gates. The project proposes laying a series of 79 inflatablepontoons across the sea bed at the three entrances to theVenetian Lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres (43 in), the pontoons will be filled with air and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work was due to be completed by 2014,[68] but as of November 2020 is expected to be completed in 2021.[69]Implemented for the first time on October 3, 2020,[69] the barriers are made to seal off three inlets that lead to the Venetian Lagoon and counteract floods of up to ten feet; in addition to protecting the city from flooding, the barrier system is also intended to stabilize Venice's water levels so as to minimize erosion of the brick walls and, subsequently, the foundations of various buildings in the city. However, concern has been raised regarding the frequency of its use—while only necessary a few days a year, the worst-case sea level rise scenario between 2050 and 2100 would prompt deployment up to 187 days a year, essentially cutting off the Venetian Lagoon from the Adriatic Sea. Among other possible adverse effects, this can be expected to lower the lagoon's oxygen levels and trap pollution inside of the city.
An active 200-kilometre (120 mi)fault has been identified to the northwest of Dubrovnik, adding to theDalmatian islands as the Eurasian Plate slides over the Adriatic microplate. Furthermore, the fault causes the Apennine peninsula's southern tip to move towards the opposite shore by about 0.4 centimetres (0.16 in) per year. If this movement continues, the seafloor will be completely consumed and the Adriatic Sea closed off in 50–70 million years.[73] In the Northern Adriatic, the coast of theGulf of Trieste and westernIstria is gradually subsiding, having sunk about 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) in the past two thousand years.[74] In the Middle Adriatic Basin, there is evidence ofPermian volcanism in the area ofKomiža on the island ofVis and the volcanic islands ofJabuka andBrusnik.[75] Earthquakes have been observed in the region since the earliest historical records.[76] A recent strong earthquake in the region was the1979 Montenegro earthquake, measuring 7.0 on theRichter scale.[77]Historical earthquakes in the area include the 1627 Gargano peninsula and the1667 Dubrovnik earthquakes, both followed by strong tsunamis.[78] In the last 600 years, fifteen tsunamis have occurred in the Adriatic Sea.[79]
Sediment billowing out from Italy's shore into the Adriatic
All types ofseafloor sediments are found in the Adriatic Sea. The Northern Adriatic's comparatively shallow seabed is characterised by relict sand (from times when the water level was lower and the area was a sandy beach), while a muddy bed is typical at depths below 100 metres (330 ft).[33][80] There are fivegeomorphological units in the Adriatic: the Northern Adriatic (up to 100 metres (330 ft) deep); the North Adriatic islands area protected against sediments filling it in by outer islands (pre-Holocenekarst relief); the Middle Adriatic islands area (large Dalmatian islands); the Middle Adriatic (characterized by the Middle Adriatic Depression); and the Southern Adriatic consisting of a coastalshelf and the Southern Adriatic Depression. Sediments deposited in the Adriatic Sea today generally come from the northwest coast, being carried by the Po,Reno,Adige,Brenta,Tagliamento,Piave and Soča rivers. The volume of sediments carried from the eastern shore by theRječina,Zrmanja, Krka,Cetina,Ombla,Dragonja,Mirna,Raša andNeretva rivers is negligible, because these sediments are mostly deposited at the river mouths. The Adriatic's western shores are largely eitheralluvial orterraced, whereas the eastern shores are predominantly rocky, except for the southernmost part of the shore located in Albania that consists of sandy coves and rocky capes.[71]
Pebble beach atBrač island, in the Adriatic Sea within Croatia
The eastern Adriatic shore's Croatian part is the most indented Mediterranean coastline.[81] Most of the eastern coast is characterised by a karst topography, developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform's exposure to weathering. Karstification there largely began after the Dinarides' final uplift in the Oligocene and theMiocene, whencarbonate deposits were exposed to atmospheric effects; this extended to the level of 120 metres (390 ft) below the present sea level, exposed during theLast Glacial Maximum. It is estimated that some karst formations are from earlier sea level drops, most notably theMessinian salinity crisis.[70] Similarly, karst developed inApulia from the Apulian Carbonate Platform.[82]
The largest part of the eastern coast consists of carbonate rocks, whileflysch (a particular type of sedimentary rock) is significantly represented in the Gulf of Trieste coast, especially along Slovenia's coast where the 80-metre (260 ft)Strunjan cliff—the highest cliff on the entire Adriatic and the only one of its type on the eastern Adriatic coast—is located,[83] on theKvarner Gulf coast opposite Krk, and in Dalmatia north of Split.[84] Rocks of the same type are found in Albania and on the western Adriatic coast.[85][86]
There are alternations of maritime and alluvialsediments occurring in thePo Valley, at the Adriatic's north-west coast, and as far west asPiacenza, dating to thePleistocene as the sea advanced and receded over the valley. An advance began after the Last Glacial Maximum, which brought the Adriatic to a high point at about 5,500 years ago.[87] Since then, the Po delta has beenprograding (expanding/extending). The rate of coastal zone progradation between 1000 BC and 1200 AD was 4 metres (13 ft) per year.[88] In the 12th century, the delta advanced at a rate of 25 metres (82 ft) per year. In the 17th century, the delta began to become a human-controlled environment, as the excavation of artificial channels started; the channels and newdistributaries of the Po have been prograding at rates of 50 metres (160 ft) per year or more since then.[89] There are more than 20 other rivers flowing into the Adriatic Sea in Italy alone, also formingalluvial coastlines,[90] including the lagoons ofVenice,Grado andCaorle.[91] There are smaller eastern Adriatic alluvial coasts—in the deltas of the Dragonja,[92]Buna and Neretva rivers.[93][94]
The Adriatic Sea is a unique water body in respect of its overallbiogeochemical physiognomy. It exports inorganic nutrients and imports particulate organic carbon and nitrogen through the Strait of Otranto—acting as a mineralization site. The exchange of the substances is made more complex by bathymetry of the Adriatic Sea—75% of water flowing north through the strait recirculates at the Palagruža Sill and North Adriatic adds no more than 3–4% of water to the South Adriatic.[95] This is reflected in itsbiogeography andecology, and particularly in the composition and properties of itsecosystems.[96] Its main biogeographic units are the Northern Adriatic, the Central Adriatic, and the Southern Adriatic.[97]
The unique nature of the Adriatic gives rise to an abundance ofendemic flora and fauna. The Croatian National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan identified more than 7,000 animal and plant species in the Adriatic Sea. The Central Adriatic is especially abundant in endemic plant species, with 535 identified species ofgreen,brown andred algae.[98] Four out of five Mediterraneanseagrass species are found in the Adriatic Sea. The most common species areCymodocea nodosa andZostera noltii, whileZostera marina andPosidonia oceanica are comparatively rare.[99]
A number ofrare andthreatened species are also found along the Adriatic's eastern coast; it is relatively clearer and less polluted than the western Adriatic coast—in part because the sea currents flow through the Adriatic in a counterclockwise direction, thus bringing clearer waters up the eastern coast and returning increasingly polluted water down the western coast. This circulation has significantly contributed to the biodiversity of the countries along the eastern Adriatic coast; thecommon bottlenose dolphin is frequent in the eastern coast's waters only, and the Croatian coast provides refuge for the critically endangeredmonk seal and sea turtles.[98] Recent studies revealed thatcetaceans and other marinemegafaunas, that were once thought to be vagrants to Adriatic Sea, migrate and live in the semi-closed sea on larger scales.[100] Largest of these live normally is thefin whale,[101] andsperm whale,[102] the largest of toothed whales also migrate but less common than fin whales, followed byCuvier's beaked whales.[100]Basking sharks[103] andmanta rays are some of migrant species to the sea.[104][105][106] Historical presences of depleted or extinct species such asNorth Atlantic right whales (extinct or functionally extinct),Atlantic gray whales (extinct), andhumpback whales have been speculated as well.[107]
Tuna has been caught by the locals in the upper Adriatic for thousands of years. The very large schools consisted mainly oflittle tunny and moved as far as theGulf of Trieste. However, increasing fishing prevented the migration of large schools of fish to the north. The last major tuna catch was made there in 1954 by the fishermen from Santa Croce, Contovello andBarcola.[108]
The Northern Adriatic in particular is rich in endemic fish fauna.[14] Around thirty species of fish are found in only one or two countries bordering the Adriatic Sea. These are particularly due to or dependent upon thekarst morphology of the coastal or submarine topography; this includes inhabiting subterranean habitats, karst rivers, and areas around freshwater springs.[109] There are 45 knownsubspecies endemic to the Adriatic's coasts and islands. In the Adriatic, there are at least 410 species and subspecies of fish, representing approximately 70% of Mediterranean taxa, with at least 7 species endemic to the Adriatic. Sixty-four known species are threatened with extinction, largely because of overfishing.[98] Only a small fraction of the fish found in the Adriatic are attributed to recent processes such asLessepsian migration, and escape frommariculture.[110]
The biodiversity of the Adriatic is relatively high, and severalmarine protected areas have been established by countries along its coasts. In Italy, these areMiramare in the Gulf of Trieste (in the Northern Adriatic),Torre del Cerrano andTremiti Islands in the Middle Adriatic basin andTorre Guaceto in southern Apulia.[111][112] The Miramare protected area was established in 1986 and covers 30 hectares (74 acres) of coast and 90 hectares (220 acres) of sea. The area encompasses 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) of coastline near the Miramare promontory in the Gulf of Trieste.[113] The Torre del Cerrano protected area was created in 2009, extending 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) into the sea and along 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) of coastline. Various zones of the protected area cover 37 square kilometres (14 sq mi) of sea surface.[114] The Tremiti Islands reserve has been protected since 1989, while the Tremiti islands themselves are part of theGargano National Park.[115] The Torre Guaceto protected area, located nearBrindisi andCarovigno, covers a sea surface of 2,227 hectares (5,500 acres) and is adjacent to the Torre Guaceto State Reserve covering 1,114 hectares (2,750 acres) of coast and sharing an 8-kilometre (5.0 mi) coastline with the marine protected area.[116] Furthermore, there are 10internationally important (Ramsar) wetland reserves in Italy located along the Adriatic coast.[117]
There are seven marine protected areas in Croatia:Brijuni and theLim Canal off the Istria peninsula's coast, nearPula andRovinj respectively;Kornati andTelašćica in the Middle Adriatic basin, nearZadar; andLastovo,Bay of Mali Ston (Croatian:Malostonski zaljev) andMljet in southern Dalmatia.[111] The Brijuninational park encompasses the 743.3-hectare (1,837-acre) archipelago itself and 2,651.7 hectares (6,552 acres) of surrounding sea;[118] it became a national park in 1999.[119] The Lim Canal is a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi)ria of thePazinčica river.[120] The Kornati national park was established in 1980; it covers approximately 220 square kilometres (85 sq mi), including 89 islands and islets. The marine environment encompasses three-quarters of the total area, while the island shores' combined length equals 238 kilometres (148 mi).[121] Telašćica is a nature park established onDugi Otok in 1988. The park covers 69 kilometres (43 mi) of coastline, 22.95 square kilometres (8.86 sq mi) of land and 44.55 square kilometres (17.20 sq mi) of sea.[122] The Bay of Mali Ston is located at the border of Croatia and Bosnia–Herzegovina, north of thePelješac peninsula. The marine protected area covers 48 square kilometres (19 sq mi).[111] The Lastovo nature park was established in 2006, and it includes 44 islands and islets, 53 square kilometres (20 sq mi) of land and 143 square kilometres (55 sq mi) of sea surface.[123] The Mljet national park was established in 1960, covering a 24-square-kilometre (9.3 sq mi) marine protection area.[111] In addition, there is a Ramsar wetland reserve in Croatia—theNeretva river's delta.[124]
In Slovenia, the marine and coastal protected nature areas are theSečovlje Salina Landscape Park,Strunjan Landscape Park,Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve, and theDebeli Rtič,Cape Madona andLakes in Fiesa natural monuments.[125][126] The Sečovlje Salina Landscape Park was established in 1990, covers 721 hectares (1,780 acres), and includes fournature reserves.[127][128] In 1993, the area was designated a Ramsar site;[125] it is also a site of international importance forwaterbird species.[129] The 429-hectare (1,060-acre) Strunjan Landscape Park was established in 2004 and comprises two nature reserves.[125][127] It includes a 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long cliff, the northernmost Mediterraneansalt field and the only Slovenianlagoon system.[130] It is also the northernmost point of growth of some Mediterranean plant species.[131] The Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve was established in 1998 and covers 122 hectares (300 acres).[132] The Debeli Rtič natural monument covers 24 hectares (59 acres),[133] the Cape Madona natural monument covers 12 hectares (30 acres),[134] and the Lakes in Fiesa natural monument, with the coastal lake as the onlybrackish lake in Slovenia,[135] covers 2.1 hectares (5.2 acres).[136]
In 2010, Albania established its first marine protection area, theKaraburun-Sazan National Marine Park at theKaraburun Peninsula where the Adriatic and Ionian Seas meet. The park covers a total of 12,570 hectares (31,100 acres).[137] Two additional marine protection areas are planned in Albania: theCape of Rodon (Albanian:Kepi i Rodonit) andPorto Palermo.[111] In addition, Albania is home to two Ramsar wetland reserves:Karavasta Lagoon, andButrint.[138] Neither Bosnia–Herzegovina nor Montenegro have or plan to establish any marine protection areas.[111]
The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from thePo River.[139] Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea.[140] A further risk is presented byballast water discharge by ships, especiallytankers. Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic Basin, the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries.[141] It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone.[142] An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before,[143] in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences.[144] Since 2006, Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshoreLNG terminal in theGulf of Trieste, as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border.[145] The Slovenian government and municipalities,[146] the municipal council of Trieste,[147] and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism.[148][149]
Another source of pollution of the Adriatic is solid waste. Drifting waste—occasionally relatively large quantities of material, especially waste plastic—is transported northwest by the sirocco.[150] Air pollution in theAdriatic Basin is associated with the large industrial centres in the Po River valley and the large industrial cities along the coast.[151][152]
Italy and Yugoslavia established a joint commission to protect the Adriatic Sea from pollution in 1977; the organization later changed with Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro replacing Yugoslavia.[153] Future pollution hazards are addressed and pollution hotspots are assessed not only by nations in the basin but also through regional projects withWorld Bank support. 27 such hotspots have been determined as of 2011, 6 warranting an urgent response.[154]
Pula Arena, one of the six largest surviving Roman amphitheatres
Settlements along the Adriatic dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC appear inAlbania andDalmatia on the eastern Adriatic coast, related to theCardium pottery culture.[155] During classical antiquity,Illyrians inhabited the eastern coast,[156] and the western coast was inhabited by thepeoples of Ancient Italy, mainlyEtruscans, before theRoman Republic's rise.[157]Greek colonisation of the Adriatic dates back to the 7th and 6th centuries BC when the ancient cities ofEpidamnos andApollonia were founded. The Greeks soon expanded further north establishing several cities, includingAncona,Black Corcyra,Epidaurus,Issa, with trade established as far north as thePo River delta, where anemporium (trading station) was founded inAdria.[158]
Roman economic and military influence in the region began to grow with the creation by 246 BC of a major naval base at Brundisium (nowBrindisi), which was established to barCarthaginian ships from the Adriatic during thePunic Wars. This led to conflict with theIllyrians, who lived in a collection of semi-Hellenized kingdoms that covered much of the Balkans and controlled the eastern shore of the sea, resulting in theIllyrian Wars from 229 to 168 BC. The initial Roman intervention in 229 BC, motivated in part by a desire to suppress Illyrian piracy in the Adriatic, marked the first time that theRoman navy crossed that sea to launch a military campaign.[159][160] Those wars ended with the eastern shore becoming a province of the Roman Republic.[161] However, resistance to Roman rule continued sporadically and Rome did not completely consolidate control of the region untilAugustus's generalTiberius put down theGreat Illyrian Revolt, a bitter struggle waged from 6 to 9 AD.[160][162] Following the repression of the revolt the Roman province ofIllyricum was split intoDalmatia andPannonia. Most of the eastern shore of the Adriatic was part of Dalmatia, except for the southernmost portion, part of the province ofMacedonia, and the peninsula ofIstria on the northern part of the eastern shore; Istria contained the important Roman colony atPula and was incorporated into the province ofItaly.[citation needed]
During the Roman period, Brundisium, on the western shore, and Apollonia and Dyrrachium (originally called Epidamnos, nowDurrës in Albania) on the eastern shore became important ports. Brundisium was linked by theVia Appia road to the city of Rome, and Dyrrachium and Apollonia were both on theVia Egnatia, a road that by about 130 BC the Romans had extended eastward across the Balkans to Byzantium (laterConstantinople, nowIstanbul).[163][164] This made the sea passage across the Adriatic between Brundisium and Dyrrachium (or Apollonia) a link in the primary route for travelers, trade, and troop movements, between Rome and the East. This route played a major role in some of the military operations that marked the end of the Roman Republic and the start of theimperial period.Sulla used it during theFirst Mithridatic War.[165] DuringCaesar's Civil War, there was a three-month delay inCaesar's Balkan campaign againstPompey caused when winter storms on the Adriatic and a naval blockade held upMark Antony from reaching him from Brundisium with reinforcements; after the reinforcements finally arrived Caesar made an unsuccessfulattempt to capture Dyrrachium before the campaign moved inland.[166] Marc Antony and Octavian (later Augustus) crossed the Adriatic to Dyrrachium with their armies in their campaign against two of Caesar's assassins,Brutus andCassius, that culminated in theBattle of Philippi.[167] Brundisium and Dyrrachium remained important ports well after the Roman period, but an earthquake in the 3rd century AD changed the path of a river causing Apollonia's harbor to silt up, and the city to decline.[168]
Another city on the Italian coast of the Adriatic that increased in importance during the Roman era wasRavenna. During the reign of Augustus, it became a major naval base as part of his program to re-organize the Roman navy to better protect commerce in the Mediterranean.[169] During the 4th century AD the emperors of theWestern Roman Empire had moved their official residence north from Rome toMediolanum (nowMilan) in order to be better able to control the military frontier with the Germanic tribes. In 402 AD, during a period of repeated Germanic invasions of Italy, the capital was shifted to Ravenna because nearby marshes made it more defensible, and the Adriatic provided an easy escape path by sea.[170] When the Western Empire fell in 476 AD Ravenna became the capital of theOstrogothic Kingdom of Italy.[171]
In theEarly Middle Ages, after theRoman Empire's decline, the Adriatic's coasts were ruled byOstrogoths,Lombards and theByzantine Empire.[172][173] The Ostrogothic Kingdom ruled Italy following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. However, during the reign ofJustinian the Byzantine Empire sent an army under the generalBelisarius to regain control of Italy, resulting in theGothic War (535–554). The Byzantines established theExarchate of Ravenna and by 553 AD their viceroy (Exarch) ruled almost the entire Italian peninsula from that city. In 568 AD the Lombards invaded northern Italy, and over the course of the next century or so the importance of the Exarchate declined as the territory under Lombard control expanded and as the Byzantine outpost ofVenice became increasingly independent. In 752 AD the Lombards overthrew the Exarchate, ending the influence of the Byzantine Empire on the western shore of the Adriatic for a few centuries.[174]
TheHigh Middle Ages in the Adriatic Sea basin saw further territorial changes, including theNorman conquest of southern Italy ending the Byzantine presence on the Apennine peninsula in the 11th and 12th centuries (the territory would become theKingdom of Naples in 1282)[182][183] and the control of a substantial part of the eastern Adriatic coast by theKingdom of Hungary after apersonal union was established between Croatia and Hungary in 1102.[184] In this period, the Republic of Venice began to expand its territory and influence.[185] In 1202, theFourth Crusade was diverted to conquerZadar at the behest of the Venetians—the first instance of aCrusader force attacking aCatholic city—before proceeding to sackConstantinople.[186] In the 13th century, Venice established itself as a leadingmaritime nation. During much of the 12th and 13th centuries, Venice and theRepublic of Genoa wereengaged in warfare culminating in theWar of Chioggia, ousting the Genoese from the Adriatic.[187] Still, the 1381 Treaty of Turin that ended the war required Venice to renounce claims to Dalmatia, after losing the territory to Hungary in 1358. In the same year, theRepublic of Ragusa was established in Dubrovnik as a city-state after it was freed from Venetian suzerainty.[188]
Venice regained Dalmatia in 1409 and held it for nearly four hundred years, with the republic's apex of trading and military power in the first half of the 15th century.[189] The 15th and the 16th centuries brought about the Byzantine Empire's destruction in 1453 and theOttoman Empire's expansion that reached Adriatic shores in present-day Albania and Montenegro as well as the immediate hinterland of the Dalmatian coast,[190][191] defeating the Hungarian and Croatian armies atKrbava in 1493 andMohács in 1526.[192] These defeats spelled the end of an independent Hungarian kingdom, and bothCroatian andHungarian nobility choseFerdinand I of theHouse of Habsburg as their new ruler, bringing theHabsburg monarchy to the shore of the Adriatic Sea, where it would remain for nearly four hundred years.[193] The Ottomans and Venetians fought aseries of wars, but until the 17th century these were not fought in the Adriatic area.[194] Ottoman raids on the Adriatic coasts effectively ceased after the massive setback in theBattle of Lepanto in October 1571.[195]
[196] The 17th century's final territorial changes were caused by theMorean or Sixth Ottoman–Venetian War, when in 1699 Venice slightly enlarged its possessions in Dalmatia.[197] In 1797, the Republic of Venice was abolished after theFrench conquest.[198] The Venetian territory was then handed over toAustria and briefly ruled as part of theArchduchy of Austria. The territory was turned back over to France after thePeace of Pressburg in 1805 when the territory in thePo valley became an integral part of the newNapoleonic Kingdom of Italy.[199] The new kingdom included the province ofRomagna, thus removing the Papal State from the Adriatic coast;[200] however, Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia were joined into a set of separate provinces of theFrench Empire: theIllyrian Provinces.[199] These were created in 1809 through theTreaty of Schönbrunn; they represented the end of Venetian rule on the eastern Adriatic coast, as well as the end of the Republic of Ragusa.[201] The Adriatic Sea was a minortheatre in the Napoleonic Wars; theAdriatic campaign of 1807–1814 involved theBritish Royal Navy contesting the Adriatic's control by the combined navies of France, Italy and the Kingdom of Naples. During the campaign, theRoyal Navy occupied Vis and established its base there inPort St. George.[202] The campaign reached its climax in the 1811Battle of Lissa,[citation needed] and ended with British andAustrian troops seizing the coastal cities on the eastern Adriatic coast from the French.[203] Days before the Battle of Waterloo, theCongress of Vienna awarded the Illyrian Provinces (spanning from the Gulf ofTrieste to theBay of Kotor) to Austria.[204] The Congress of Vienna also created theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia which encompassed the city of Venice, the surrounding coast and a substantial hinterland, and was controlled by Austria.[205] In the Apennine peninsula's south, theKingdom of the Two Sicilies was formed in 1816 by unifying the kingdoms of Naples andSicily.[206]
TheWorld War I Adriatic Campaign was largely limited to blockade attempts by theAllies and theeffort of theCentral Powers to thwart the British, French and Italian moves.[211] Italy joined the Allies in April 1915 with theTreaty of London, which promised Italy the Austrian Littoral, northern Dalmatia, theport of Vlorë, most of the eastern Adriatic islands and Albania as aprotectorate.[212] The treaty provided the basis for all the following divisions between Italy and Yugoslavia.[213] In 1918, the Montenegrin national assembly voted to unite with theKingdom of Serbia, giving the latter access to the Adriatic.[214] Another short-lived, unrecognised state established in 1918 was theState of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, formed from parts of Austria-Hungary, comprising most of the former monarchy's Adriatic coastline. Later that year, the Kingdom of Serbia and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs formed theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes—subsequently renamed Yugoslavia. The proponents of the new union in theCroatian parliament saw the move as a safeguard against Italian expansionism as stipulated in the Treaty of London.[215] The treaty was largely disregarded by Britain andFrance because of conflicting promises made to Serbia and a perceived lack of Italian contribution to the war effort outside Italy itself.[216] The 1919Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye did transfer the Austrian Littoral and Istria to Italy but awarded Dalmatia to Yugoslavia.[217] Following the war, aprivate force of demobilized Italian soldiers seized Rijeka and set up theItalian Regency of Carnaro—seen as a harbinger ofFascism—in order to force the recognition of Italian claims to the city.[218] After sixteen months of the Regency's existence, the1920 Treaty of Rapallo redefined the Italian–Yugoslav borders, among other things transferring Zadar and the islands of Cres, Lastovo andPalagruža to Italy, securing the island of Krk for Yugoslavia and establishing theFree State of Fiume; this new state was abolished in 1924 by theTreaty of Rome that awarded Fiume (modern Rijeka) to Italy andSušak to Yugoslavia.[219]
Italy and Yugoslavia defined their Adriatic continental shelf delimitation in 1968,[232] with an additional agreement signed in 1975 on the Gulf of Trieste boundary, following the Treaty of Osimo. The boundary agreed in 1968 extends 353 nautical miles (654 km; 406 mi) and consists of 43 points connected by straight lines or circulararc segments. The additional boundary agreed upon in 1975 consists of 5 points, extending from an end point of the 1968 line. All successor states of former Yugoslavia accepted the agreements. In the Adriatic's southernmost areas the border was not determined in order to avoid prejudicing the location of thetripoint with the Albanian continental shelf border, which remains undefined. Before the breakup of Yugoslavia, Albania, Italy and Yugoslavia initially proclaimed 15-nautical-mile (28 km; 17 mi)territorial waters, subsequently reduced to international-standard 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) and all sides adoptedbaseline systems (mostly in the 1970s). Albania and Italy determined their sea border in 1992 according to theequidistance principle.[233] FollowingCroatian EU membership, the Adriatic became aninternal sea of the EU.[234] TheUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines the Adriatic Sea as an enclosed or semi-enclosed sea.[235]
The former Yugoslav republics' land borders were decided by demarcation commissions implementing theAVNOJ decisions of 1943 and 1945,[237][238] but the exact course has not been agreed upon by the successor states, which makes the maritime boundaries' definition difficult;[239] the maritime borders were not defined at all in the time of Yugoslavia.[240] In addition, the maritime boundary between Albania and Montenegro was not defined before the 1990s.[233]
Croatia and Slovenia started negotiations to define maritime borders in theGulf of Piran in 1992 but failed to agree, resulting in a dispute. Both countries also declared their economic zones, which partially overlap.[233][241] Croatia's application to become anEU member state was initially suspended pending resolution of itsborder disputes with Slovenia.[233] These disputes with Slovenia were eventually settled with an agreement to accept the decision of aninternational arbitration commission set up via theUN, enabling Croatia to progress towards EU membership.[242][243][244] Croatia is still not following the resolution of the international arbitration for the Gulf of Piran. A dispute over the gulf is still on going with the Croatians handing out fines to Slovenian fishermen that are following the agreed economic.[245] Aside from the EU membership difficulty, even before its settling the dispute has caused no major practical problems.[233]
The maritime boundary between Bosnia–Herzegovina and Croatia was formally settled in 1999, but a few issues are still in dispute—theKlek peninsula and two islets in the border area. The Croatia–Montenegro maritime boundary is disputed in the Bay of Kotor, at thePrevlaka peninsula. This dispute was exacerbated by the peninsula's occupation by theYugoslav People's Army and later by the (Serbian–Montenegrin)FR Yugoslav Army, which in turn was replaced by aUnited Nations observer mission that lasted until 2002. Croatia took over the area with an agreement that allowed Montenegrin presence in the bay's Croatian waters, and the dispute has become far less contentious since Montenegro's independence in 2006.[233]
The largest volume of fish harvesting was in Italy, where the total production volume in 2007 stood at 465,637 tonnes (458,283 long tons).[246] In 2003, 28.8% of Italian fisheries production volume was generated in the Northern and central Adriatic, and 24.5% in Apulia (from the Southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea). Italian fisheries, including those operating outside the Adriatic, employed 60,700 in theprimary sector, includingaquaculture (which comprises 40% of the total fisheries production). The total fisheries output's gross value in 2002 was $1.9 billion.[254]
In 2007, Croatia's production in live weight reached 53,083 tonnes (52,245 long tons).[246] In 2006, the total Croatian fisheries production volume was 37,800 tonnes (37,200 long tons) of catch and 14,200 tonnes (14,000 long tons) from marine aquaculture. Croatian fisheries employed approximately 20,000. The 2006 marine capture catch in Croatian waters consisted ofsardines (44.8%),anchovies (31.3%),tunas (2.7%), otherpelagic fish (4.8%),hake (2.4%),mullet (2.1%), otherdemersal fish (8.3%),crustaceans (largelylobster andNephrops norvegicus) (0.8%),shellfish (largelyoysters andmussels) (0.3%),cuttlefish (0.6%),squids (0.2%) andoctopuses and othercephalopods (1.6%). Croatian marine aquaculture production consisted of tuna (47.2%), oysters and mussels (28.2% combined) andbass andbream (24.6% combined).[255]
In 2007, Albanian fisheries production amounted to 7,505 tonnes (7,386 long tons),[246] including aquaculture production, which reached 1,970 tonnes (1,940 long tons) in 2006. At the same time, Slovenian fisheries produced a total of 2,500 tonnes (2,460 long tons) with 55% of the production volume originating in aquaculture, representing the highest ratio in the Adriatic. Finally, the Montenegrin fisheries production stood at 911 tonnes (897 long tons) in 2006, with only 11 tonnes coming from aquaculture.[256] In 2007, the fisheries production in Bosnia–Herzegovina reached volume of 9,625 and 2,463 tonnes (9,473 and 2,424 long tons) in Slovenia.[246]
The countries bordering the Adriatic Sea are significant tourist destinations. The largest number of tourist overnight stays and the most numerous tourist accommodation facilities are recorded in Italy, especially in the Veneto region (around Venice). Veneto is followed by the Emilia-Romagna region and by theAdriatic Croatiancounties. The Croatian tourist facilities are further augmented by 21,000 nautical ports andmoorings;nautical tourists are attracted to various types of marineprotected areas.[111]
All countries along the Adriatic coast, except Albania and Bosnia–Herzegovina, take part in theBlue Flag beach certification programme (of theFoundation for Environmental Education), for beaches andmarinas meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection, water quality, safety and services criteria.[257] As of January 2012, the Blue Flag has been awarded to 103 Italian Adriatic beaches and 29 marinas, 116 Croatian beaches and 19 marinas, 7 Slovenian beaches and 2 marinas, and 16 Montenegrin beaches.[258] Adriatic tourism is a significant source of income for these countries, especially in Croatia and Montenegro where the tourism income generated along the Adriatic coast represents the bulk of such income.[259][260] The direct contribution of travel and tourism to Croatia's GDP stood at 5.1% in 2011, with the total industry contribution estimated at 12.8% of the national GDP.[261] For Montenegro, the direct contribution of tourism to the national GDP is 8.1%, with the total contribution to the economy at 17.2% of Montenegrin GDP.[262] Tourism in Adriatic Croatia has recently exhibited greater growth than in the other regions around the Adriatic.[263]
Rimini is a major seaside tourist resort in Italy.
There are nineteen Adriatic Sea ports (in four different countries) that each handles more than a million tonnes of cargo per year. The largest cargo ports among them are thePort of Trieste (the largest Adriatic cargo port in Italy), the Port of Venice, thePort of Ravenna, thePort of Koper (the largest Slovenian port),[273] thePort of Rijeka (the largest Croatian cargo port), and thePort of Brindisi.
Port ofTrieste, the largest cargo port in the Adriatic
The largest passenger ports in the Adriatic are thePort of Split (the largest Croatian passenger port) and ports inAncona (the largest Italian passenger seaport in the Adriatic).[274][275][276][277] The largest seaport in Montenegro is thePort of Bar.[278] In 2010, the Northern Adriatic seaports of Trieste, Venice, Ravenna, Koper and Rijeka founded theNorth Adriatic Ports Association to position themselves more favourably in the EU's transport systems.[279][280]
The port of Trieste is of particular importance for Central Europe because this is where theTransalpine Pipeline begins, supplying 100 percent of southern Germany, 90 percent of Austria and 50 percent of the Czech Republic with crude oil.[281]
*Ports handling more than a million tonnes of cargo or serving more than a million passengers per year Sources:National Institute of Statistics (2007 data, Italian ports, note: the Port of Ancona includes Ancona andFalconara Marittima;[282] passenger traffic below 200,000 is not reported),[274]Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2008 data, Croatian ports, note: the Port of Rijeka includes the Rijeka,Bakar,Bršica andOmišalj terminals;[283] the Port of Ploče includes thePloče andMetković terminals),[275][284] Durrës' Chamber of Commerce and Industry – Albania (2007 data, Port of Durrës),[276] SEOnet (2011 data, Port of Koper)[285]
Natural gas is produced through several projects, including a joint venture of theEni andINA companies that operates two platforms—one is in Croatian waters and draws gas from six wells, and the other (which started operating in 2010) is located in Italian waters. The Adriatic gas fields were discovered in the 1970s,[286]: 265 but their development commenced in 1996. In 2008, INA produced 14.58 millionBOE per day of gas.[287] About 100 offshore platforms are located in the Emilia-Romagna region,[111] along with 17 in the Northern Adriatic.[288] Eni estimated itsconcessions in the Adriatic Sea to hold at least 40,000,000,000 cubic metres (1.4×1012 cu ft) of natural gas, adding that they may even reach 100,000,000,000 cubic metres (3.5×1012 cu ft). INA estimates, however, are 50% lower than those supplied by Eni.[289] Oil was discovered in the Northern Adriatic at a depth of approximately 5,400 metres (17,700 ft); the discovery was assessed as not viable because of its location, depth and quality.[290] These gas and oil reserves are part of thePo basin Province of Northern Italy and the Northern Mediterranean Sea.[291]
In the 2000s, investigation works aimed at discovering gas and oil reserves in the Middle and Southern Adriatic basins intensified, and by the decade's end, oil and natural gas reserves were discovered southeast of the Bari, Brindisi—Rovesti and Giove oil discoveries. Surveys indicate reserves of 3 billionbarrels ofoil in place and 5.7×1010 cubic metres (2,000,000,000,000 cu ft) of gas in place.[292] The discovery was followed by further surveys off the Croatian coast.[293] In January 2012, INA commenced prospecting for oil off Dubrovnik, marking the resumption ofoil exploration along the eastern Adriatic coast after surveys commenced in the late 1980s around the island of Brač were cancelled because of Yugoslavia's breakup andwar in Croatia. Montenegro is also expected to look for oil off its coast.[294] As of January 2012, only 200 exploration wells had been sunk off the Croatian coast, with all but 30 in the Northern Adriatic basin.[295]
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![The Barcolana regatta in Trieste, Italy, was named "the greatest sailing race" by the Guinness World Record for its 2,689 boats and over 16,000 sailors on the starting line.[264]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTriestebarcolana.jpg)
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