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| Achaia Ἀχαΐα | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Province of theRoman Empire | |||||||||||||
| 27 BC–7th century | |||||||||||||
.svg) The province of Achaia within the Roman Empire, c. 125 AD | |||||||||||||
| Capital | Corinth | ||||||||||||
| Historical era | Antiquity | ||||||||||||
• Separated from the Province of Macedonia | 27 BC | ||||||||||||
• Reorganized into theTheme of Hellas | 7th century | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
| Today part of | Greece | ||||||||||||
Achaia[1][2] (Ancient Greek:Ἀχαΐα), sometimes spelledAchaea,[3][4] was aprovince of theRoman Empire, consisting of thePeloponnese,Attica,Boeotia,Euboea, theCyclades and parts ofPhthiotis,Aetolia andPhocis. In the north, it bordered on the provinces ofEpirus vetus andMacedonia. The region was annexed by theRoman Republic in 146 BC following the sack ofCorinth by the Roman generalLucius Mummius, who was awarded the surname "Achaicus" ('conqueror of Achaia'). Initially part of theRoman province of Macedonia, it was made into a separate province byAugustus.
Achaia was asenatorial province, thus free from military men and legions, and one of the most prestigious and sought-after provinces for senators to govern.[5] Athens was the primary center of education for the imperial elite, rivaled only by Alexandria, and one of the most important cities in the Empire.[5] Achaia was among the most prosperous and peaceful parts of the Roman world untillate antiquity, when it first suffered from barbarian invasions. The province remained prosperous and highly urbanized, however, as attested in the 6th-centurySynecdemus.
The Slavic invasions of the 7th century led to widespread destruction, with much of the population fleeing to fortified cities, the Aegean islands and Italy, while some Slavic tribes settled the interior. The territories of Achaia remaining inByzantine hands were grouped into thetheme ofHellas.
In 150–148 BC the Romans fought theFourth Macedonian War, after which they annexedMacedon, formerly the largest and most powerful state in mainland Greece. In 146 BC theAchaean League initiated theAchaean War against Rome. The contemporary historianPolybius blames the demagogues of the cities of the Achaean League for encouraging a rash decision and inciting a suicidal war. The League was quickly defeated byLucius Mummius and its main city,Corinth, was destroyed. After the war, the Romans annexed mainland Greece. A group of ten commissioners "put down democracies" in the Greek cities (Pausanias) through a programme of "constitutional restructuring"[6] which involved the introduction of property qualifications for participating in civic politics, temporarily abolished the Achaean,Boeotian, Locrian, and Phocaean Leagues, and levied tribute on the individual cities. However, the cities remained mostly self-governing.[7]Athens andSparta, which had not participated in the war remained autonomous and free. It is disputed whether Greece became part of the Roman provinceMacedonia or was left unincorporated. Interventions by the governor of Macedonia in Greek affairs are attested, but also the dispatch of separatelegates direct from Rome.[8] Roman governance over the following century remained "rather ad hoc."[9]
In theDyme Affair of 144 BC, a faction in the city ofDyme passed laws "contrary to the type of government granted by the Romans," staged a revolution, and destroyed their town hall and official records. At the request of the Dymaean town councillors, Quintus Fabius Maximus[a] issued a ruling, sentencing the revolutionaries to death.[11] An inscription recording judicial decisions made in the Greek city ofDemetrias in the mid-second century BC says that the judgements were made in accordance with local law and "the edicts and judgements of the Romans", indicating that Roman law was already considered to apply to the region only a few years after the Achaean War.[12]
In the following decades, many Greek communities sought to establish treaty relationships of "friendship and alliance" with Rome, apparently finding this preferable to free status. Treaties are attested, mostly by inscriptions, withEpidaurus andTroezen in the late second century BC,Astypalaea in 105 BC,Thyrium in 94 BC. The cities probably sought these treaties as a way of safeguarding their territory from their larger neighbours.[7] Rome was increasingly called upon by the Greek communities to arbitrate in disputes between them, instead of seeking inter-state arbitration as had been common in the Hellenistic period.[13] In these disputes, "friends and allies" of the Romans were usually favoured.[13]
TheFirst Mithridatic War (89–85 BC) was fought in Attica and Boeotia, two regions which were to become part of the province of Achaia. In 89 BC,Mithradates VI Eupator, king of Pontus, seized theRoman Province of Asia (in westernAnatolia). Mithridates then sentArchelaus (his leading military commander) to southern Greece, where he establishedAristion as a tyrant in Athens. The Roman consulLucius Cornelius Sulla landed inEpirus (in western Greece) and marched on Athens. He marched throughBoeotia on his way to Attica. Sulla besieged Athens and Piraeus in 87-86 BC and then sacked Athens and destroyed Piraeus. He then defeated Archelaus at theBattle of Chaeronea and theBattle of Orchomenus, both fought inBoeotia in 86 BC. Roman rule was preserved. Following the war, Sulla pardoned the Greek cities that had followed Mithridates and restored the legal systems that had been given to them by the Romans previously.[14][15]
As the part of the Roman East closest to Italy, Greece was a central theatre of the civil wars of theLate Republic.The war betweenJulius Caesar andPompey the Great culminated in Caesar's victory at theBattle of Pharsalus in Thessaly in 48 BC. In 46 BC, southern Greece was separated out from Macedonia as a separate province for the first time byJulius Caesar, who placed it under aproconsul, but this was reversed at some point after his assassination in 44 BC.[16] Caesar also ordered the refoundation of Corinth, abandoned since 146 BC, as aRoman colony. Caesar's assassins, led byMarcus Junius Brutus andGaius Cassius Longinus, based themselves in Greece during theLiberators' civil war, until their defeat byOctavian andMark Antony of theSecond Triumvirate at theBattle of Philippi in 42 BC. After the battle, the Second Triumvirate assigned Greece along with the rest of the East to Mark Antony, who remained in control of it until his defeat by Octavian at theBattle of Actium in 31 BC.
After the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at theBattle of Actium, the EmperorAugustus separated Greece, Thessaly, and part of Epirus from Macedonia in 27 BC. The new province was named Achaia and was a senatorial province (Macedonia remained a senatorial province as well).[16] In AD 15, EmperorTiberius, responding to complaints of mismanagement by the senatorial proconsul made Achaia and Macedonia Imperial provinces and placed both of them under the control ofGaius Poppaeus Sabinus, the Imperialprocurator ofMoesia.[17][16] After Sabinus' death in AD 35, this situation continued under the new procurator,Publius Memmius Regulus, until AD 44, when EmperorClaudius separated Macedonia and Achaia once more and restored them to the Senate.[18][16]
TheRoman EmperorNero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at theAncient Olympic Games, despite the rules against non-Greek participation. He was honoured with a victory in every contest, and in the following year, he proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks at theIsthmian Games in Corinth, just asFlamininus had over 200 years previously.[16] This grant of freedom was cancelled byVespasian, who is meant to have quipped that "the Greeks had forgotten how to be free."[16]
Hadrian (117–138) was fond of the Greeks, particularly Athens. He saw himself as an heir toTheseus andPericles and had served as aneponymous archon of Athens before he became emperor.[19] He carried out constitutional reforms at Athens in 126 and instituted a special 'council of the Panhellenes', where representatives of all Greek states met to discuss religious affairs, in Athens and under Athenian leadership. Hadrian was also responsible for large scale construction projects there, such as the completion of theTemple of Olympian Zeus. The Athenians built theArch of Hadrian in his honour nearby.[20] Construction was also carried out by local notables, many of whom became Roman citizens and joined the imperial elite, most notablyHerodes Atticus.
During theMarcomannic Wars, in 170 or 171, theCostoboci invaded Roman territory, sweeping south through the Balkans to Achaia, where they sacked the sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone atEleusis. Even though much of the invasion force was spent, the local resistance was insufficient and the procuratorLucius Julius Vehilius Gratus Julianus was sent to Greece with a small force to clear out the remnants of the invaders.[21]
Many of the cities in the province, including Athens,Delphi,Thespis, andPlataea, were "free cities" and did not fall under the authority of the governor. From some time in the reign ofTrajan a separate official thecorrector was appointed to oversee their affairs. This office was increasingly merged with that of the provincial governor as time went on.[22]
Legal cases could be appealed to the governor. He was advised by a "council" (consilium) and often delegated judicial powers to members of the council or other officials. There were also juries of provincials, composed of both Greeks and Roman citizens resident in the province. Cases regarding borders between provinces, free cities, and Roman colonies were usually decided by the emperor.[23] Cases could only be appealed to these authorities if they involved more than a certain amount of money, involved status, or carried the death penalty.[23]
ThePax Romana was the longest period of peace in Greek history, and Greece became a major crossroads of maritime trade between Rome and the Greek-speaking eastern half of the empire. TheGreek language served as alingua franca in the East and inItaly, and many Greek intellectuals such asGalen would perform most of their work inRome. Roman culture was highly influenced by the Greeks; asHorace said,Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror").[24] The epics ofHomer inspired theAeneid ofVirgil, and authors such asSeneca the Younger wrote using Greek styles. Some Roman nobles regarded the contemporary Greeks as backwards and petty, while still embracing the Greeks'literature,philosophy, and heritage.[25]
During this time, Greece and much of the rest of the Roman East came under the influence ofearly Christianity. The apostlePaul ofTarsus preached inPhilippi, Corinth and Athens, and Greece soon became one of the most highly Christianized areas of the Empire. He referred in the opening lines of hisSecond Letter to the Corinthians to "all the saints who are in the whole of Achaia".[26]
UnderDiocletian, the province of Achaia became a subdivision of the newdiocese ofMoesia. Under Constantine, the diocese was split and Achaia became part of theDiocese of Macedonia, which was itself assigned to thePraetorian prefecture ofItaly orIllyricum at different points in the fourth century AD.
In 267, theHeruli led a naval invasion of theAegean, before landing nearSparta and plundering thePeloponnese, including not only Sparta, but alsoCorinth,Argos, and the sanctuary of Zeus atOlympia. They then moved north andsacked Athens, before being defeated by a local force led by the AthenianDexippus, whose writings were a source for later historians.[27] In the aftermath of this invasion, much of the classical and imperial monuments of Athens werespoliated to build the post-Herulian wall, which enclosed only a small area around the Acropolis. Although a smaller city, Athens remained a centre of Greek culture and especially ofNeo-Platonist pagan philosophy.
Greece was again invaded in 395 by theVisigoths underAlaric I.Stilicho, who ruled as a regent for EmperorArcadius, evacuated Thessaly, and Arcadius' chief advisorEutropius allowed Alaric to enter Greece, where he looted Athens, Corinth and thePeloponnese. Stilicho eventually drove him out around 397 and Alaric was mademagister militum in Illyricum.[28]
Greece remained part of the relatively cohesive and robust eastern half of the Empire, which eventually became the center of the imperial remnant, theEastern Roman Empire. Contrary to outdated visions oflate Antiquity, the Greek peninsula was most likely one of the most prosperous regions of the Empire. Older scenarios of poverty, depopulation, barbarian destruction, and civil decay have been revised in light of recent archaeological discoveries.[29] In fact thepolis, as an institution, appears to have remained prosperous until at least the 6th century. Contemporary texts such as Hierokles'Syndekmos affirm that late antiquity Greece was highly urbanised and contained approximately eighty cities.[29] This view of extreme prosperity is widely accepted today, and it is assumed between the 4th and 7th centuries AD, Greece may have been one of the most economically active regions in the easternMediterranean.[29]
Copper, lead, and silver mines were exploited in Achaia, though production was not as great as the mines of other Roman-controlled areas, such asNoricum,Britannia, and the provinces of Hispania. Marble from Greek quarries was a valuable commodity.
Educated Greek slaves were much in demand in Rome in the role of doctors and teachers, and educated men were a significant export. Achaia also produced household luxuries, such as furniture, pottery, cosmetics, and linens. Greek olives and olive oil were exported to the rest of the Empire.
| Name | Dates | Title | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Maximus | ca. 100-110 | Corrector of the free cities | PlinyLetters 8.24;ArrianEpict. 3.7[45] |
| Gaius Avidius Nigrinus | ca. 114 | Legatus Augusti pro praetore | FD III 4, no. 290–296;SEG 52.139[45] Previously governor of Achaia. |
| Publius Pactumeius Clemens | ca. 122? | Legatus of the Divine Hadrian to Athens, Thespiae, and Plataea | CIL VIII 7059.[45] Son-in-law of governorTitus Prifernius Geminus.[46] |
| Lucius Aemilius Juncus | ca. 134 | Legatus Augusti pro praetore; Justice-giver; Corrector of the Free Cities | [45] |
| Severus | ca. 139 | Prefect | IG II² 1092[45] |
| Sextus Quintilius Condianus and Sextus Quintilius Valerius Maximus | ca. 170 and 175 | Rulers of Greece | Together, combining the role with governorship.[45] |
| Claudius Demetrius | ca. 193-198 | Legatus Augusti pro praetore; Proconsul; Corrector of the Free Cities | Combining role with governorship.[45] |
| Tiberus Claudius Callippianus Italicus | ca. 198-211 | Legatus Augusti pro praetore; Consular; Corrector of the Free Cities | IG II² 4215. Combining role with governorship.[45] |
| Egnatius Proculus | ca. 198-211 | Consular; Corrector | IG V 1, 541.[45] |
| Tiberius Claudius Suatianus Proculus | ca. 200-206 | Curator of Athens and Patras | ILS 9488.[45] |
| Gnaeus Claudius Leonticus | ca. 200-217 | Counsular and Corrector of Achaia; Proconsul | SIG3 877;FD III 4, 269–271, 331A-B. Combining role with governorship.[45] |
| Gaius Licinius Telemachus | 209 | Legatus Augusti pro praetore;Clarissimus; Curator of Athens | IG II² 1077; 2963. Combining role with governorship?[45] |
| Paulinus | ca. 200-235 | Governor and Corrector of Greece | IG V 1, 538.[45] Combining role with governorship. |
| Lucius Egnatius Victor Lollianus | ca. 230 | Clarissimus Counsular; Corrector of Achaia | IG VII 2510.[45] |
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)38°43′12″N22°32′24″E / 38.7200°N 22.5400°E /38.7200; 22.5400
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