For the genus of moth, seeAccra (moth). For the Philippine law firm, see ACCRA. For the suburb of Jerusalem that goes by almost the same name, seeAcra (fortress). For the Turkish capital, which shares the same name as Accra in the Dagbani language, seeAnkara.
Accra (/əˈkrɑː/;Ga:Ga orGaga;Twi:Nkran; Ewe: Gɛ;Dagbani:Ankara) is the capital and largest city ofGhana, located on the southern coast at theGulf of Guinea, which is part of theAtlantic Ocean.[2][3] As of the 2021 census, theAccra Metropolitan District, 20.4 km2 (7.9 sq mi), had a population of 284,124, and the largerGreater Accra Region, 3,245 km2 (1,253 sq mi), had a population of 5.46 million.[1] In common usage, the name "Accra" often refers to the territory of theAccra Metropolitan District as it existed before 2008, when it covered 199.4 km2 (77.0 sq mi).[4] This territory has since been split into 13local government districts: 12 independentmunicipal districts (total area: 179.0 km2) and the reduced Accra Metropolitan District (20.4 km2), which is the only district within the capital to be granted city status.[5] This territory of 199.4 km2 contained 1,782,150 inhabitants at the 2021 census,[6] and serves as the capital of Ghana, while the district under the jurisdiction of the Accra Metropolitan Assembly proper (20.4 km2) is distinguished from the rest of the capital as the "City of Accra".[7]
The wordAccra is derived from theAkan wordNkran meaning "ants", a reference to the numerous anthills seen in the countryside around Accra.[11] The name specifically refers tosoldier ants, and was applied to both the town and people by theTwi speakers.[12][13]
The name of Accra in the localGa language isGa orGaga, the same name as that of theGa people and acognate withNkran. The word is sometimes rendered with the nasalised vowels asGã orGãgã. HistorianCarl Christian Reindorf confirmed this etymology, proposing a link between the martial qualities and migratory behaviour of the local ants and those of the Ga people. The link between theethnonym and ants was explicitly reflected in the recognition of anthills as sacred places. Often ringed by sacred fences (aklabatsa), the tall red mounds dotting Accra's hinterland were seen as microcosms of human community and as nodal points between the known world and the world of the dead.[12]
The Gas used the reference to the invasive species of dark-red swarming ants to connote the military prowess of the Gas and their ancient conquest ofGuang speakers residing in the Accra Plains.[14]
The nameGa is actually a cognate of the nameAkan, one of a few words in which[g] corresponds to[k] in Akan.[15]Ga also gave its name to theGa districts surrounding Accra.[16][self-published source?]
The spellingAccra was given toNkran byEuropeans.[16] An earlier spelling used by theDanes wasAkra.[17][18]
The mainGa group known as the Tumgwa Were led by Ayi Kushie arrived by sea. Due to the large number of the Ga immigrants, the indigenous Lartehs relocated to theAkuapem ridge.[citation needed] By the late 15th century, the kingdom of Accra ruled the area from the capital atAyawaso.[19]
Initially, Accra was not the most prominent trading centre; the trading hubs were the ports atAda andPrampram, along with the inland centres ofDodowa andAkuse.[20] An early Portuguese fort was destroyed by the local inhabitants in 1576; trade afterwards was conducted on the beaches.[21] The Dutch later built the nearbyFort Crèvecœur while the British and the Swedes built James Fort and Christiansborg castles, respectively, in the mid-17th century.[22]
By 1646 the kingdom was a regional power, bolstered by European trade. Nevertheless, it depended on the goodwill of the risingAkwamu Kingdom, which controlled the trade routes in the interior. A dispute in 1646 escalated to war when Accra invaded Larteh.[21] At the same time, Accra was weakened by a civil war.[23]
In 1677Akwamuhene Ansa Sasraku, using the circumcision of a visiting Akwamu prince as pretext, attacked Accra. He sacked Ayawaso and beheaded the king,Okai Koi.[23] The king's son,Ofori, retreated to 'Small Accra', the town that had grown up under the walls ofFort Crèvecœur.[24] Ansa Sasraku's attempts to finish off the Accrans were defeated by the guns of the DanishFort Christianborg.[25] Ofori and his people survived for a few years, until the Akwamu fomented a rebellion amongst the Danish garrison, and the fort was turned over to thePortuguese. Ansa Sasraku returned in 1681, burning Osu town and Small Accra and chasing Ofori to exile inFetu.[26] As Akwamu continued to expand, strips of land east and west were added to the Accra province.[27] When Akwamu was defeated by theAkyem in 1730, however, Accra regained its independence.
Britain gradually acquired the interests of all other countries beginning in 1851, when Denmark soldChristiansborg (which they had acquired from the Swedes) and their other forts to the British. TheNetherlands was the last to sell out, in 1871. In 1873, after decades of tension between the British andAshantis, the British capturedKumasi, destroying portions of the city. The British then captured Accra in 1874, and in 1877, at the end of the secondAnglo-Asante War, Accra replacedCape Coast as the capital of the BritishGold Coast. This decision was made because Accra had a drier climate relative to Cape Coast. Until this time, the settlement of Accra was confined between Ussher Fort to the east and theKorle Lagoon to the west.[28]
As the newly established Gold Coast's administrative functions were moved to Accra (1877), an influx of British colonial administrators and European settlers grew around the Christiansborg (modernOsu, Ministries, Ridge, Labone, andCantonments) began, and the city began to expand to accommodate the new residents. Victoriaborg was formed in the late 19th century as an exclusively European residential neighbourhood, located to the east of the city limits of the time. The boundaries of Accra were further stretched in 1908, after a bubonic plague epidemic.[29] This expansion entailed the creation of a native-only neighbourhood, intended to accommodate members of the native population as a means of relieving congestion problems in the overcrowded city centre.Adabraka was thus established to the north of the city.[30]
A main street of central Accra sometime between 1885 and 1908
One of the most influential decisions in the history of the city was that of building the Accra-Kumasi railway in 1908. This was to connect Accra, the country's foremost port at that time, with Ghana's maincocoa-producing regions. In 1923, the railway was completed, and by 1924, cocoa was Ghana's largest export.[citation needed]
The colonial era heavily influenced the shape that Accra took during this period. For example, thesegregation of European and African neighbourhoods was mandated by law until 1923, and all new buildings were required to be built out of stone or concrete.[citation needed] Despite these regulations, European settlers in the Gold Coast were very hesitant to invest any large amount of money into the city to maintain its infrastructure or improve public works. This did not change until the governorship ofSir Frederick Gordon Guggisberg during which period the three separate settlements (Osu, La and Jamestown) merged to become modern Accra. Guggisberg's administration laid out the present grid networked neighbourhoods of Tudu, Adabraka and Asylum Down.[citation needed]
Among the achievements of Guggisberg was the building of a bridge across the Korle Lagoon in 1923, which increased settlement at Korle Bu, Korle Gonno and Chokor, to the west of the lagoon. Guggisberg also oversaw the building of a major hospital (Korle-Bu) and secondary school (Achimota).[29] Such improvements led to an increase in Accra's population due to themigration of rural dwellers into the city, and the immigration of increasing numbers of British businessmen and administrators.[citation needed]
In the years followingWorld War II, the neighbourhoods of Ridge and Cantonments were planned as low-density developments for Europeans, while many rural migrants settled in neighbourhoods which had not yet been incorporated into Accra's municipal boundary, such as Nima and surrounding areas.[citation needed] Thus, the development of these neighbourhoods was unregulated by the government, creating a crowded and jumbledshanty-town landscape.[citation needed]
Another area of Accra that took shape at this time was the central business district (CBD). More administrative buildings were built on High Street, forming a massive judicial/administrative complex. Additionally, the expansion of the economy led to many more commercial buildings being built in the CBD.[citation needed]
In 1944, Accra's city planner Maxwell Fry devised a town plan, which was revised in 1958 by B.D.W. Treavallion and Alan Flood. Although the Fry/Trevallion plan was never followed through, it illustrated the British vision of how Accra should develop.[citation needed]
In 1948, Ghana remained a colony of Great Britain following World War II. The chief of Osu Alata, Nii Kobina Bonney III, had set up a boycott of European goods across the country due to the rise of prices for essential commodities.[34] At the same time, veterans of the war were fighting for their benefits and promised pay.[35] Unarmed ex-servicemen organized a march onChristiansborg Castle, Accra, on 28 February 1948. Their plan was to hand a petition to the colonial governor demanding they receive their pay and benefits. Before reaching the castle, the veterans were fired upon, after being ordered by the colonial police chief to disperse. Three of the leaders of the demonstration were killed, includingSergeant Nii Adjetey, who now has a memorial in Accra,[citation needed] leading to the1948 Accra riots.
In the Fry/Treavallion plan, a reorganization of the CBD was called for, as well as the development of the coastal region of the city. To reorganize the CBD, the planners decided to superimpose a tight street grid north of Fort Ussher.
To the east of this newly organized CBD, the planners hoped to preserve a broad, open space for a restaurant, country club, andpolo andcricket fields. Additionally, the British planners intended to build large numbers of public squares, fountains, and ornamental pools and statues throughout the city, as well as a vast Parliament Complex in the city centre. Lastly, the Fry/Treavallion plan included plans to make the coastal region an extension of the exclusive European neighbourhood of Victoriaborg, and to create a recreational preserve for the elite. However, theBritish Gold Coast ended before the Fry/Treavallion plan was enacted.
AfterKwame Nkrumah became Ghana's firstPrime Minister in 1957, he created his own plan for Accra's development.[36] Nkrumah proposed creating spaces to inspire pride and nationalism in his people and people throughout Africa.[citation needed]
Rather than creating ornamental fountains and a large Parliament complex, Nkrumah decided to build landmarks such as Independence Square, the State House, and the Organisation of African Unity building, and to refurbish Christianborg Castle. Nkrumah decided to leave the Atlantic coastal region undeveloped so as to not detract attention from the Community Centre or Independence Square, lending both spaces symbolic significance.[citation needed] The Nkrumah plan did not emphasize order nearly as much as the Fry/Treavallion plan did; whereas the British plan strove to lessen crowding in the commercial district and help relieve the overcrowding of neighbourhoods bordering the CBD, the Nkrumah plan allowed for continued compression of commercial establishments into the CBD, as well as increased migration into Jamestown.[citation needed]
The city is also a transportation hub, home to theKotoka International Airport, and railway links toTema,Sekondi-Takoradi andKumasi. Accra has become a location for national and international business conferences, such as the BarCamp Ghana series, organised by GhanaThink Foundation.[37]
Owing to its location in theDahomey Gap, where the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean coast runs parallel to the prevailing moist monsoonal winds, Accra features a very marginaltropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification:Aw) that borders on ahot semi-arid climate (Köppen:BSh). The average annual rainfall is about 730 mm (29 in), which falls primarily during Ghana's two rainy seasons. The chief rainy season begins in April and ends in mid-July, whilst a weaker second rainy season occurs in October. Rain usually falls in brief but intense storms and causes localised flooding in which drainage channels are obstructed.[citation needed]
Very little variation in temperature occurs throughout the year. The mean monthly temperature ranges from 25.9 °C (78.6 °F) in August (the coolest) to 29.6 °C (85.3 °F) in March (the hottest), with an annual average of 27.6 °C (81.7 °F). The "cooler" months, which are summer months, tend to be morehumid than the warmer months, which are winter and spring months. As a result, during the warmer months and particularly during the windyharmattan season, the city experiences a breezy "dry heat" that feels less warm than the "cooler" but more humid rainy season.[citation needed]
As a coastal city, Accra is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and sea level rise, with population growth putting increasing pressure on the coastal areas.[39] Drainage infrastructure is particularly at risk, which has profound implications for people's livelihoods, especially in informal settlements. Inadequate planning regulation and law enforcement, as well as perceived corruption in government processes, lack of communication across government departments and lack of concern or government co-ordination with respect to building codes are major impediments to progressing the development of Accra's drainage infrastructure, according to theClimate & Development Knowledge Network.[40]
As Accra is close to theequator, the daylight hours are practically uniform throughout the year. Relative humidity is generally high, varying from 65% in the midafternoon to 95% at night. The predominant wind direction in Accra is from the WSW to NNE sectors. Wind speeds normally range between 8 and 16 km/h. High wind gusts occur withthunderstorms, which generally pass insqualls along the coast.[citation needed]
The maximum wind speed record in Accra is 107.4 km/h (66.7 mph). Strong winds associated with thunderstorm activity often cause property damage by removing roofing material. Several areas of Accra experience microclimatic effects. Low-profiledrainage basins with a north–south orientation are not as well ventilated as those oriented east–west.[citation needed]
Air is often trapped in pockets over the city, and an insulating effect can give rise to a local increase in air temperature of several degrees. This occurs most notably in the Accra Newtown sports complex areas.[citation needed]
The administration of Accra occurs at two levels. Strategic initiatives, such as the urban transportation project, are coordinated between district authorities,[43] while local administration is carried out by local government authorities, which are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, local roads and refuse collection within their area of jurisdiction.[citation needed]
Aerial photograph 7 November 1929
The former territory of the Accra Metropolitan District, 199.4 km2 (77.0 sq mi),[4] as it existed before 2008, is now divided into 13 separate local government districts, all governed as municipal assemblies with their own town hall and a municipal executive appointed by the president of the republic. Each municipal assembly is responsible for most local services, such as local planning and refuse collection. The reducedAccra Metropolitan District (also referred to as City of Accra), 20.4 km2 (7.9 sq mi), once comprised the entirety of Accra until the Ledzokuku, Krowor, La Dadekotopon, Ablekuma North, Ablekuma Central, Ablekuma West, Ayawaso East, Ayawaso North, Ayawaso Central, Ayawaso West, Okaikwei North, and Korley Kottey districts were carved out as separate municipal districts between 2008 and 2019.[citation needed]
The Accra Metropolitan District is one of the 13 local government districts that contains the historic centre and the primary central business district (CBD) of Accra. To promote efficiency in the administrative machinery and also meet the ever-pressing demands for amenities and essential services, the district is divided into the Ashiedu Keteke, Okaikoi South, and Ablekuma South sub-metropolitan districts.[44]
TheAblekuma South sub-metropolitan district covers an area of 6 km2 (2.3 mi2) and is bordered by the Ablekuma Central and Ablekuma North Municipal Assemblies, and the Ashiedu Keteke sub-metropolitan district.[46] It includes 5 electoral areas: Korle Gonno, Korlebu, Chorkor, Mamprobi, and New Mamprobi.[citation needed]
Communities within theOkaikoi South sub-metropolitan district include Darkuman, New Fadama, Kaneshie, Bubiashie, and Avenor.[47] The sub-metro has 8 electoral areas namely Awudome, Goten, Kaatsean, Mukose, Bubuashie, Bubui, Avenor and Kaneshie.
TheAshiedu Keteke sub-metropolitan district covers the Central Business District (CBD) and as such the hub of major commercial activities within the Metropolis. Major markets include Makola, Agbogbloshie, and Kwasiodwaso. There are 8 electoral areas namely Ngleshie, Mudor, Kinka, Nmlitsagonno, Amamomo, Korle Wonkon, and Korle Dudor.[48]
The La Dadekotopon Municipal Assembly, with its administrative capital at La, was carved out of the Accra Metropolitan Assebmly in 2012.[50] The Kotoka International Airport, Airport City, Accra Mall, and the US Embassy are located within the assembly, which covers an area of 32 km2 (12 mi2).[1] Other communities within this assembly include Cantonments, Labone, and Burma Camp.
The Korle-Klottey Municipal Assembly was carved out of the Accra Metropolitan Assembly in 2019 and covers an area of 10 km2 (3.9 mi2)[1] Some of the communities within the assembly include Osu, Ringway Estates, Asylum Down, North Ridge, West Ridge, Ministries, Gold Coast City, North Adabraka, and Tudu. There are nine electoral areas namely Osu Doku, Ringway Estates, Kinkawe, Osu Alata, Asylum Down, North Adabraka, Tudu, Odorna/Sahara, and Official Town.[citation needed]
The Ring Road, extending from the Korle Lagoon in the west, north to Kwame Nkrumah Circle, following east to the juncture of Independence Avenue, and continuing on toOsu, forms a ring around the oldest districts of Accra, and separates central Accra from the outlying suburbs.
Although satellite business districts such as the Airport City have been established across the city, Central Accra remains the administrative and cultural centre of Accra, hosting government ministries, hotels, businesses, and financial institutions.
Northern Accra is a residential and business district. The area contains the "37" Military Hospital,The Flagstaff House, several foreignembassies,Achimota School, Achimota Golf Park, and theUniversity of Ghana's Legon campus, which serves as Accra's northern boundary.
Geographically, the areas north of Ring Road West and Central, east of Winneba/Graphic Road, west of Liberation Road, and the districts just north and south of the Kwame Nkrumah motorway are regarded as Northern Accra. Some areas North of Accra include, Ashongnman, Madina, Haatso, North and West Legon and others.
Eastern Accra is largely residential and geographically north of Ring Road East, stretching as far north as Kwame Nkrumah Motorway; the district is bordered to the west by Liberation Road.
Western Accra is largely a residential and business area. Whilst geographically less expansive than the northern and eastern reaches of the city as a result of the large saltponds of Tettegu and Aplaku, it nonetheless boasts one of Accra's most important landmarks, theKorle Bu Teaching Hospital.
Geographically, the areas west of Ring Road West, extending as far west as the saltponds and south of Graphic Road, are considered Accra West.[54]
The period between 1960 and 1970 saw rapid industrialization and expansion in Accra's manufacturing and commercial sectors. This contributed to highrural-urban migration to the city, and consequently a high population growth rate.[55] The stagnation of the Ghanaian economy during the 1970s slowed the growth of Accra's population, as shown by the falling growth rate of the 1970–1984 intercensal years. Later, however, the decline in agriculture in rural communities in Ghana and rising industrialization in urban regions, coupled with the late-1980s boom in theservice sector, once again propelled immigration to Accra. The primacy of the Accra Metropolitan Area as the Greater Accra region's administrative, educational, industrial and commercial centre continues to be the major force for its population growth, with immigration contributing to over 35% of the Accra's population growth.
The gross density of population for the Accra Metropolitan Area in 2000 was 10.03 persons per hectare, compared to 6.23 per hectare in 1970. The highest densities were recorded in theAccra Metropolitan Assembly, with an overall average of 69.3 persons per hectare. At the community level, densities exceeding 250 persons per hectare occurred mostly in the immigrant and depressed areas in the oldest parts of Accra, such as Accra New Town, Nima, Jamestown and Usshertown. In higher-income areas, densities ranged between 17.5 and 40 persons per hectare.
Accra's population is a very youthful one, with 56% of the population being under 24 years of age. This predominance of young people is not expected to decline in the foreseeable future. Fifty-one percent (51%) of the population are females, and the remaining 49% males. This gives a males-to-females ratio of 1:1.04. The greater number of females is a reflection of the nationwide trend, where the estimated ratio of males to females is 1:1.03.[56]
Decentralization is expected to reduce the migration rates in Accra. An assessment of the extent of migration to Accra, based on present locality and gender, reveals that 45% of residents in Accra are African immigrants from countries across the African continent.
Parts of Central Accra comprise a mixture of very low-density development with under-used service infrastructure on the one hand, high-density development and overstretched infrastructure services on the other. The growth of Accra has led to the neglect of some of the old settlements, whilst efforts are being made to provide the newly developing suburban areas with services and infrastructure to cater for the needs of the middle-income earners. Peripheral residential development in Accra barely has sufficient infrastructure to support it. There are also large numbers of uncompleted houses, interspersed with pockets of undeveloped land, which are often subject of litigation, due to the inability of organisations and individuals who own them to complete or develop them due to lack of funds. Housing can be grouped into three broad categories: the low-income, middle-income and high-income areas. The low-income housing areas comprise Osu, Jamestown, Adedenkpo, Chorkor, La, Teshie, Nungua, Sukura, Kwashieman, Odorkor, Bubiashie, Abeka, Nima, Maamobi and Chorkor. Altogether, these areas accommodate about 58% of Accra's total population. Most of Accra's informal businesses are located in low-income areas.
Almost all low-income areas are built up with little room for expansion. This is particularly so in the areas of the inner city. The middle-income areas of Accra are predominantly populated by Ghanaian citizens and business, administrative and professional families. Much of the housing in these areas has been provided by state, parastatal andprivate sector organisations and individuals. The middle-income areas include Dansoman Estates, North Kaneshie Estates, Asylum Down, Kanda Estates, Abelempke, Achimota, Adenta and Tesano. Usually, these areas, unlike the low-income areas, are planned developments, but are in need of infrastructure services. Building materials and general housing conditions are of better quality. The middle-income group comprises 32% of the city's population of which are Ghanaian citizens make up. The high-income areas provide housing for the remaining 10% of the population of which Ghanaian citizens also make up. They include areas like North Ridge and West Ridge, Ringway Estates, north Labone Estates, Airport Residential Area, Roman Ridge, East Legon.
These areas are all planned and have well-developed infrastructure with spacious and landscaped ground in sharp contrast with, particularly, the low-income areas. Buildings are usually built withsandcrete blocks, and have walls and roofed with aluminium, orasbestos roofing sheets. There are also high-income peripheral areas like Haatso, Kwabenya, Pokuase, Adenta, Taifa, Mallam, where development of engineering infrastructure is not yet complete. These areas developed ahead of infrastructure, however the Achimota-Ofankorcontrolled-access highway was scheduled to open in May 2012,[needs update][57][58]dual carriagewayroad construction was also due to be completed in 2012.[needs update] In total, 84.4% of all houses in the Accra Metropolitan Area have their outside walls made up of cement. Similarly, houses found within Accra have 99.2% of their floor materials made up of cement.
In 2008, theWorld Bank estimated that Accra's economy only constituted aroundUS$3 billion of Ghana's total gross domestic product (GDP).[59] The economically active population of Accra is estimated to be 823,327.
Accra Central, Accra, Ghana
Accra is a centre for manufacturing, marketing, finance, insurance, and transportation. Its financial sector incorporates a central bank, nine commercial banks (with 81 branches), four development banks (with 19 branches), four merchant banks (with seven branches), three discount houses, one home finance mortgage bank, multiplebuilding societies,Ghana Stock Exchange,foreign exchange bureaus, finance houses, insurance companies, insurance brokerage firms, two savings and loans companies, and numerous real estate developers, with industrial sites and residential developments.[60][61] The road network in the Accra Metropolitan Area totals 1,117 kilometres (694 mi) in length.
There are over 50,506 identified residential properties in Accra, and about 4,054 commercial/industrial/mixed properties, with a total rateable value of GH¢13,849,014.[62] There are also supermarkets, 36 facilities for both on–street and off-street parking, and shopping malls, as well as several facilities for sports and recreation.
The sectors of Accra's economy consist of the primary, secondary (manufacturing, electricity, gas, water, construction) and tertiary sectors (supermarkets, shopping malls, hotel, restaurant, transportation, storage, communication, financial intermediation, real estate service, public administration, education, health and other social services). The tertiary service sector is the city's largest, employing about 531,670 people. The second-largest, the secondary sector, employs 22.34% of the labour force, or around 183,934 people. 12.2% of the city's workforce are reportedly unemployed, totalling around 114,198 people.[62]
Further information on the technology company:Asoriba
Accra's smallest economic sector, the primary sector, employs approximately 91,556 people. The predominant economic activities arefishery andurban agriculture, with fishery accounting for 78% of production labour. Urban agriculture in Accra centres on the growth of vegetables, several crops and poultry. The fishery industry is the most important sub-sector, with 10% of the catch being exported and the rest consumed locally. The industry is characterised by extreme seasonableness, operating primarily between June and September. Although most deep-water Atlantic fishing around Accra takes place in the June–September period, fishery operations take place close to the shore throughout the year, and there are clear indications of thedepletion of fish stocks in the near future. Fishing operations are most prominent at the Jamestown, La, Teshie, Nungua and Chorkor fishing shores.
Pre-school comprises nursery and kindergarten. In 2001, there were 7,923 children (3,893 girls and 4,030 boys) inpre-schools in Accra. In 2010, the enrolment rate at Pre-school was 98%.[63] Pre-schools are regulated by the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare, and are mostly privately owned and operated. In 2001, there were 62 government-owned pre-schools in the Accra metropolis.
The Junior High School is part of Ghana's basic education program. Its nationwide implementation began on 29 September 1987.
In the 2001/2002 academic year, 61,080 pupils had enrolled in Accra, representing 57.17% of the 129,467 school-age 12–to-14-year-olds. In 2010, the enrolment rate at Junior high school level was 95%.[63] The ratio of girls is also higher at this level.[63]
The transition rate between junior high and senior high school increased from 30 per cent in 1990 to 50 per cent in 2001. The number of students grew by 23,102 between 1990 and 2005, an increase of about 2,310 a year, since 2010 the senior high school enrolment rate has been 95%.[63]
Ghana International School (GIS), a private non-profitA-Level school founded in 1955 for children from ages 3–18, is located in Accra's Cantonments. Abelemkpe is the home ofLincoln Community School, a private, non-profitInternational Baccalaureate (IB) school for students aged 3–18, established in 1968.[64] Some other International Baccalaureate Schools in Accra include Al-Rayan International School (ARIS), Association International School (AIS), and American International School (AIS). These schools were established in 2003, 1963, and 2006, respectively.
TheUniversity of Ghana is located 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of the city centre atLegon. A number of other public and private universities andtertiary institutions have since been founded in Accra, some of which are listed below.
Accra as a rapidly growing city, with lots of vehicles and other urban pollution sources, has also an increasing amount of air pollution andplastic pollution. Accra's urban ecosystem has been a site of dumping by international waste networks, with theAgbogbloshie suburb known for its highly toxice-waste recycling sites, and theKantamanto Market as handling an overwhelming flow of usedfast fashion from other parts of the world.[68] Both sites are sources of pollution and trash for other parts of the urban ecosystem.[68][69]
Air pollution varies seasonally, but the average measure PM2.5 average concentration of 49.5 μg/m3.[70] Live monitoring of air pollution is done at three sites in the city of Accra.[71] A 2021 review by theEnvironmental Protection Agency in Ghana found that the levels were well exceeding both national and international standards for health.[72]
Plastic management is also an increasing challenge.[73] Use of plastic water bottleswater sachets and other packaging for food safety, as well as the use of plastic during events like COVID-19 have significantly increased plastic pollution.[74] The beaches around Accra have significant plastic pollution, and surrounding fisheries are heavily impacted by plastics.[75] Multiple non-profit organizations have been formed to collect the plastic and an increasingly growing network of recyclers and informal waste recovery networks.[75][74][76] However, activists and researchers largely attribute the issue to upstream use of plastics.
There's been numerous Decongestion exercises carried out by successive mayors in the city to help solve hawking menace, flood issues and ensure road safety in the city despite the challenge of lack of adherence.[77]
Rapidly growing population and construction within the city has been resulting in a reduction inUrban green space.[78] A 2021 study of low income communities in the city found increasing concern and desire among these communities for urban green spaces for recreation and health.[79] A 2018 study of greenspaces in the city, found the ones that do exist are important for mammal biodiversity in the city.[80]
Accra is on the Atlantic coast but it has not served as a port city since the 1950s. Instead, the Port ofTema, about 29 km to the east along the Atlantic coast, was developed for deepwater shipping to and from Ghana as it can accommodate larger ships; the port opened in 1961.[81] Tema is part of the metropolitan area of Accra.
Transport within Accra includes roads and rails, and an international airport
In 2003, theMetro Mass Transit Service, was inaugurated in Accra as a more comfortable and cheaper alternative to the trotro.
Accra is served by theAayalolo bus system, which was inaugurated in November 2016. It was initially planned as abus rapid transit with dedicated lanes, but because these lanes were not provided it was renamed Quality Bus System (QBS).
An agreement was signed in 2019 to build a five line, 194 km (121 mi), automated, elevated light railway metro system calledAccra Skytrain. As of 2021 construction has not commenced on the $2.6 billion project. The government said in February 2021 it intends to proceed with the project which will developed under abuild-own-operate concession by private South African firm.
Accra is served byKotoka International Airport, which has both civil and military uses.[84] Located 6 miles (9.7 kilometres) from downtown Accra, the airport handles all of the city'sscheduled passenger services. There are plans to build a second airport to relieve the aviation pressure on the Kotoka International Airport. This new airport will be located at Prampram in Accra and will be constructed by China Airport Civil Construction. This plan was still under review in 2020, as additional runways at Kotoka are in consideration as an alternative to a new international airport.[85]
Accra has an extensivetaxi network and numeroustaxi ranks, but most taxis lack a meter system, so price negotiation is required between the passenger and driver. Metered taxis do operate in the city, but tend to be more expensive. Taxis in Ghana are painted in two colours: the four bumpersfenders are yellow/orange, and the rest of the car is in a colour of the operator's choice. These taxis usually function on a shared ride model, where several passengers share one vehicle and the fare is calculated based on the distance traveled. Recently, modern taxi services such asUber,Taxify, andYango have joined the market, providing a more advanced and comfortable alternative. Some taxi drivers might charge extra for luggage or late-night trips while some also offer fixed prices and allow for advance bookings, offering a more reliable and secure option.[86]
By far the most common form of transport in Accra,tro tros (minibuses or cargo vans modified for passenger transport) is the third biggest, and second most efficient and cost-effective way of getting around the city. The buses are typically minibuses or vans. Some of the most popular models used as tro tros are Nissan Urvan 15-seaters and Mercedes Benz Sprinter or D 309 vans. Trotros are typically decorated with decals such as flags of various countries or (local and international) soccer teams, popular sayings, proverbs (in English or local languages) or Bible verses. Trotros pick up and offload passengers at designated bus stops along their regular routes. Tro tros will also usually offload at undesignated locations along the route, by passenger request. Most routes commence and terminate at large urban transport terminals such as the Neoplan station or theAchimota Transport Terminal.[87]
Tourism in Ghana accounted for 1,087,000 international tourist arrivals in 2011.[93]Accra is the Greater Accra region's tourist hub, sporting a wide variety of hotels, monuments, museums and nightclubs. The city has threefive-star hotels: the Labadi Beach Hotel, the La Palm Royal Beach Hotel and the Movenpick Ambassador Hotel. The Golden Tulip Hotel and Novotel Accra, located in Accra's central business district, are both ranked four stars. There are numerous three-star hotels, including the Hotel Wangara, Hotel Shangri-La and Erata Hotel, as well as many budget hotels. TheAccra International Conference Centre and other meeting facilities provide venues for conference tourism.[94]
The Du Bois Centre houses a research library and gallery of manuscripts, as well as the graves of its namesake, the scholarW.E.B. Du Bois, and his wifeShirley Graham Du Bois.TheKwame Nkrumah Mausoleum is the resting place of Ghana's first President,Kwame Nkrumah, who oversaw the Gold Coast's independence from Britain and was a leading exponent ofPan-Africanism.
In 1994, Emmanuel Aboki Essien, a high-up member within theGrand Orange Lodge of Ghana, in Accra, was elected President of the Imperial Orange Council, the governing body of the worldwideOrange Order. He was the first African to hold this position, significantly raising the profile of African Orange lodges within thefraternity.[95][96] Accra holdorange walks to celebrate historical events, such as theBattle of the Boyne.[97]
The city's foremost historical site is the Jamestown area, which contains theUssher Fort andJames Fort, andOsu Castle (also known asChristiansborg), built by Danish settlers in the 17th century.
Accra has an Atlantic beachfront and the most popular of the city's beaches isLabadi Beach, along with Kokrobite Beach, which is located 25 kilometres (16 miles) west of Accra. Thebeachfront area also houses the Academy of African Music and Arts.
Ghana's film industry is growing. Its first documentary addressing the impacts of climate change premiered in Accra on 14 October 2022.[98]The Ghana Youth Film Program is a compilation film of 12 documentary short films made youth from across Ghana aged 18 to 30. It participated in the United Nations climate summit, COP27, on 9November 2022.
^"Accra Climate Normals 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived fromthe original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved28 September 2023.
^"Klimatafel von Accra (Int. Flugh.) / Ghana"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst.Archived(PDF) from the original on 16 May 2019. Retrieved17 October 2016.
^Ofori, Benjamin Y.; Garshong, Reuben A.; Gbogbo, Francis; Owusu, Erasmus H.; Attuquayefio, Daniel K. (21 July 2018). "Urban green area provides refuge for native small mammal biodiversity in a rapidly expanding city in Ghana".Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.190 (8): 480.Bibcode:2018EMnAs.190..480O.doi:10.1007/s10661-018-6858-1.ISSN1573-2959.PMID30032389.S2CID51708386.
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^"Accra-Tema Railway Line".railway-technology.com. Kable Intelligence. c. 2010. Archived fromthe original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved23 December 2017.
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