Acadiens (French) | |
|---|---|
 | |
 Population distribution of Acadian Canadians by census division, 2021 census | |
| Total population | |
| ~500,000 – 2,000,000 | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| United States 901,260 Canada 305,175[1] to more than 500,000[2] France 20,400 | |
| Louisiana, United States | 815,260 |
| New Brunswick, Canada | 108,375 |
| Quebec, Canada | 83,945 |
| Nova Scotia, Canada | 49,205 |
| Ontario, Canada | 34,125 |
| Maine, United States | 30,000 |
| Alberta, Canada | 10,115 |
| Prince Edward Island, Canada | 8,260 |
| British Columbia, Canada | 7,025 |
| Brittany | 3,000 |
| Saint Pierre and Miquelon | 3,000 |
| Manitoba, Canada | 1.470 |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 1,100 |
| Languages | |
| Acadian French (a variety ofFrench with over 300,000 speakers in Canada),[3]English, or both; Insoutheastern New Brunswick and other areas speakChiac; those who have resettled to Quebec typically speakQuebec French orJoual. Franglais | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlyRoman Catholicism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| French (Poitevin-Saintongeais andOccitans),Cajuns,French-Canadians,Mi'kmaq,Métis,Huguenots | |
| Part ofa series of articles on the |
| French people |
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Africa Asia Middle East Europe
North America South America Oceania 1Overseas parts of France properMigration of minorities inFrance (i.e.Basques) can be considered as separate (ethnically) or French migration (by nationality). |
TheAcadians (French:Acadiens;European French:[akadjɛ̃],Acadian French:[akad͡zjɛ̃]) are anethnic group descended from theFrench who settled in theNew France colony ofAcadia during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Today, most descendants of Acadians live in either the Northern Americanregion of Acadia, where descendants of Acadians who escaped theExpulsion of the Acadians (a.k.a. The Great Upheaval /Le Grand Dérangement) re-settled, or inLouisiana, where thousands of Acadians moved in the late 1700s. Descendants of the Louisiana Acadians are most commonly known asCajuns, theanglicized term of "Acadian".[4]
Most Acadians in Canada continue to live in majority French-speaking communities, notably those in New Brunswick where Acadians and Francophones are granted autonomy in areas such as education and health.In some cases, Acadians intermarried with Indigenous Peoples, in particular, theMi'kmaq.[5][6] Some Louisiana Cajuns continue to speakLouisiana French, but most have been primarily anglophone since the mid-20th century.[7]
Acadia was one of the five regions of New France. Acadia was located in what is nowEastern Canada'sMaritime provinces, as well as parts ofQuebec and present-dayMaine to theKennebec River. It was ethnically, geographically and administratively different from the other French colonies such as theFrench colony of Canada. As a result, the Acadians developed a distinct history and culture.[8] The settlers whose descendants became Acadians primarily came from the west-central region of France, such as the rural areas ofPoitou-Charentes.[9]
During theFrench and Indian War (known in Canada as The Seven Years' War),[10] British colonial officers suspected that Acadians were aligned with France, after finding some Acadians fighting alongside French troops atFort Beauséjour. Though most Acadians remained neutral during the war, the British, together with New England legislators and militia, carried out theGreat Expulsion (Le Grand Dérangement) of the Acadians between 1755 and 1764. They forcefully deported approximately 11,500 Acadians from the maritime region. Approximately one-third perished from disease and drowning.[11] In retrospect, the result has been described as anethnic cleansing of the Acadians from Maritime Canada.[12][13]
Acadians speak a variety of French calledAcadian French, which has a few regional accents (for example,Chiac in the southeast of New Brunswick, orBrayon in the northwest of New Brunswick). Most can also speak English. The Louisiana Cajun descendants tend to speakEnglish, includingCajun English orLouisiana French, a relative of Acadian French from Canada.
Estimates of contemporary Acadian populations vary widely. The Canadian census of 2006 reported only 96,145 Acadians in Canada, based on self-declared ethnic identity.[14] However, the Canadian Encyclopedia estimates that there are at least 500,000 of Acadian ancestry in Canada, which would include many who declared their ethnic identity for the census as French or as Canadian.[2]
During the early 17th century,[15] about 60French families were established in Acadia. They developed relations with the peoples of theWabanaki Confederacy (particularly the regionalMi'kmaq). The Acadians lived mainly in the coastal regions of theBay of Fundy; they reclaimed farming land from the sea by building dikes to control water and drain certain wetlands.
Living in a contested borderland region between French Canada and the British territories on New England and the coast, the Acadians often became entangled in the conflict between the powers. Their competition in Europe played out in North America as well. Over a period of 74 years, six wars (the fourFrench and Indian Wars,Father Rale's War, andFather Le Loutre's War) took place in Acadia and Nova Scotia, in which the Wabanaki Confederacy and some Acadians fought to keep the British from taking over the region. While France lost political control of Acadia in 1713, the Mí'kmaq did not concede land to the British. Along with Acadians, the Mi'kmaq used military force to resist the British. That was particularly evident in the early 1720s duringDummer's War.
The British had conquered Acadia in 1710. Over the next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. Many were influenced by FatherJean-Louis Le Loutre, who from his arrival in 1738 until his capture in 1755, preached against the "English devils".[16] Father Le Loutre led the Acadian people during theAcadian Exodus, as an act of defiance towards British demands and oppression. Acadians took part in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the FrenchFortress of Louisbourg andFort Beausejour.[17] During the French and Indian War, the British sought to neutralize any military threat posed by the Acadians and to interrupt the vital supply lines which they provided to Louisbourg by making them sign an oath of allegiance to the crown.[18][19]
The British founded the town ofHalifax and fortified it in 1749 in order to establish a base against the French. The Mi'kmaq resisted the increased number of British (Protestant) settlements by making numerous raids on Halifax,Dartmouth, Lawrencetown, andLunenburg. During the French and Indian War, the Mi'kmaq assisted the Acadians in resisting the British during the Expulsion of the Acadians.[20]
Many Acadians might have signed an unconditional oath to the British monarchy had the circumstances been better, while other Acadians would not sign because it was religious oath which denied the Catholic faith because the British Monarch was head of theChurch of England.[21] Acadians had numerous reasons against signing an oath of loyalty to the British Crown. Acadian men feared that signing the oath would commit them to fighting against France during wartime. They also worried about whether their Mi'kmaq neighbours might perceive an oath as acknowledging the British claim to Acadia rather than that of the indigenous Mi'kmaq. Acadians believed that if they signed the oath, they might put their villages at risk of attack by the Mi'kmaq.[22]
Data from this section from Statistics Canada, 2021.[23]
| Province / Territory | Percent Acadians | Total Acadians |
|---|---|---|
 Alberta | 0.2% | 10,110 |
 British Columbia | 0.1% | 7,025 |
 Manitoba | 0.1% | 1,465 |
 New Brunswick | 14.3% | 108,375 |
 Newfoundland and Labrador | 0.2% | 1,100 |
 Northwest Territories | 0.7% | 270 |
 Nova Scotia | 5.1% | 49,205 |
 Nunavut | 0.3% | 95 |
 Ontario | 0.2% | 34,125 |
 Prince Edward Island | 5.5% | 8,265 |
 Quebec | 1.0% | 83,945 |
 Saskatchewan | 0.1% | 935 |
 Yukon | 0.7% | 260 |
 Canada—Total | 0.8% | 305,175 |
Today about one third of the population of the officially bilingual province of New Brunswick speaks French as their mother tongue. The great majority of these are of Acadian ancestry, and there are also many Acadian institutions, organizations and cultural events.[24]
In the Great Expulsion (known by French speakers asle Grand Dérangement), after theBattle of Fort Beauséjour beginning in August 1755 underLieutenant Governor Lawrence, approximately 11,500 Acadians (three-quarters of the Acadian population in Nova Scotia) were expelled, families were separated, their lands and property confiscated, and in some cases their homes were burned. The Acadians were deported to separated locations throughout the British eastern seaboard colonies, from New England to Georgia, where many were put into forced labour, imprisoned, or put intoservitude.[25][26]
The British conducted a second and smaller expulsion of Acadians after taking control of the north shore of what is nowNew Brunswick. After thefall of Quebec and defeat of the French, the British lost interest in such relocations.
Some Acadians were deported to England, some to the Caribbean, and some to France. After being expelled to France, many Acadians were eventually recruited by theSpanish government to migrate toLuisiana (present-dayLouisiana). These Acadians settled into or alongside the existingLouisiana Creole settlements, sometimes intermarrying with Creoles, and gradually developed what became known asCajun culture.[27]
After 1758, thousands were transported to France. Most of the Acadians who later went to Louisiana sailed there from France on five Spanish ships. These had been provided by the Spanish Crown, which was eager to populate their Louisiana colony with Catholic settlers who might provide farmers to supply the needs of New Orleans residents. The Spanish had hired agents to seek out the dispossessed Acadians in Brittany and kept this effort secret in order to avoid angering the French king. These new arrivals from France joined the earlier wave expelled from Acadia, and gradually their descendants developed theCajun population (which included multiracial unions and children) and culture. They continued to be attached to French culture and language, and Catholicism.
The Spanish offered the Acadians lowlands along theMississippi River in order to block British expansion from the east. Some would have preferred Western Louisiana, where many of their families and friends had settled. In addition, that land was more suitable to mixed crops of agriculture. Rebels among them marched to New Orleans and ousted the Spanish governor. The Spanish later sent infantry from other colonies to put down the rebellion and execute the leaders. After the rebellion in December 1769, Spanish Governor O'Reilly permitted the Acadians who had settled across the river fromNatchez to resettle along theIberville orAmite rivers closer toNew Orleans.[28]
In time, some Acadians returned to the Maritime provinces of Canada, mainly to New Brunswick and coastal villages that were not occupied by colonists from New England.[29]
The British prohibited them from resettling their lands and villages in what became Nova Scotia. A few of the Acadians in this area had evaded the British for several years, but the brutal winter weather eventually forced them to surrender. Some returnees settled in the region of Fort Sainte-Anne, nowFredericton, but were later displaced when the Crown awarded land grants to numerousUnited Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies after the victory of the United States in theAmerican Revolution. Most of the descendants of Acadian returnees now live primarily on the eastern coast of New Brunswick, Canada.
In 2003, at the request of Acadian representatives,Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada issued aRoyal Proclamation acknowledging the deportation. She established 28 July as an annual day of commemoration, beginning in 2005. The day is called the "Great Upheaval" on some English-language calendars.
Before theAmerican Revolutionary War, the Crown settled Protestant European immigrants andNew England Planters in former Acadian communities and farmland. After the war, it made land grants in Nova Scotia toLoyalists. British policy was to establish a majority culture of Protestant religions and toassimilate Acadians with the local populations where they resettled.[11]
The Acadians today live predominantly in the Canadian Maritime provinces (New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia), as well as parts of Quebec, Canada, and in Louisiana and Maine, United States.
In New Brunswick, Acadians inhabit the northern and eastern shores of New Brunswick. Other groups of Acadians can be found in theMagdalen Islands and theGaspé Peninsula. Ethnic Acadian descendants still live in and around the area ofMadawaska, Maine, where some of the Acadians first landed and settled in what is now known as the St. John Valley. There are also Acadians in Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, atChéticamp,Isle Madame, andClare. East and WestPubnico, located at the end of the province, are the oldest regions that are predominantly ethnic Acadian.
Other ethnic Acadians can be found in the southern regions of New Brunswick, Western Newfoundland and in New England. Many of these communities have assimilated to varying degrees into the majority culture of English speakers. For many families in predominantlyAnglophone communities, French-language attrition has occurred, particularly in younger generations.
The Acadians who settled inLouisiana after 1764 became known as Cajuns for the culture they developed. They have had a dominant cultural influence in manyparishes, particularly in the southwestern area of the state, which is known asAcadiana.
Acadians are a vibrant minority, particularly in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada, and in Louisiana (Cajuns) and northern Maine, United States. Since 1994,Le Congrès Mondial Acadien has worked as an organization to unite these disparate communities and help preserve the culture.
In 1881, Acadians at the First Acadian National Convention, held inMemramcook, New Brunswick, designated 15 August, the Christian feast of theAssumption of Mary, as thenational feast day of their community. On that day, the Acadians celebrate by having atintamarre, a big parade and procession for which people dress up with the colors of Acadia and make a lot of noise and music.
Thenational anthem of the Acadians is "Ave Maris Stella", adopted in 1884 atMiscouche, Prince Edward Island. The anthem was revised at the 1992 meeting of the Société Nationale de l'Acadie. The second, third and fourth verses were translated into French, with the first and last kept in the originalLatin.
The Federation des Associations de Familles Acadiennes of New Brunswick and the Société Saint-Thomas d'Aquin of Prince Edward Island have resolved to commemorate 13 December annually as "Acadian Remembrance Day", in memory of the sinking of theDuke William and of the nearly 2,000 Acadians deported from Ile-Saint Jean who died in 1758 while being deported across the North Atlantic: from hunger, disease and drowning.[30] The event has been commemorated annually since 2004; participants mark the day by wearing a black star.
![A picture of four Acadian women, 1895[31]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAcadiennes_(2).jpg)
American writerHenry Wadsworth Longfellow publishedEvangeline, an epic poem loosely based on the 1755 deportation. The poem became an American classic. Activists used it as a catalyst in reviving a distinct Acadian identity in both Maritime Canada and in Louisiana.Antonine Maillet's novelPélagie-la-charette concerns the return voyage to Acadia of several deported families, starting 15 years after the Great Expulsion.
In the early 20th century, two statues were made of the fictional figure of "Evangeline" to commemorate the Expulsion: one was installed inSt. Martinville, Louisiana and the other inGrand-Pré, Nova Scotia. The Acadian Memorial (Monument Acadien) has an eternal flame;[32] it honors the 3,000 Acadians who settled in Louisiana after the Expulsion. Monuments to the Acadian Expulsion have been erected at several sites in the Maritime Provinces, such as atGeorges Island, Nova Scotia, and atBeaubears Island.
Theflag of the Acadians is the Frenchtricolour, with the addition of a golden star in the blue field. This symbolizes SaintMary, Our Lady of the Assumption,patron saint of the Acadians and widely known as the "Star of the Sea". This flag was adopted in 1884 at the Second Acadian National Convention, held in Miscouche, Prince Edward Island.
Acadians in thediaspora have adopted other symbols. The flag of Acadians in Louisiana, known as Cajuns, was designed by Thomas J. Arceneaux of theUniversity of Louisiana at Lafayette. In 1974 it was adopted by the Louisiana legislature as the official emblem of the Acadiana region. The state has supported the culture, in part because it has attracted cultural and heritage tourism.[33]
In 2004 New England Acadians, who were attending Le Congrès Mondial Acadien in Nova Scotia, endorsed a design by William Cork for a New England Acadian flag.[34]
A note on interpretation: With regard to census data, rather than going by ethnic identification, some would define an Acadian as a French-speaking person living in the Maritime provinces of Canada. According to the same 2006 census, the population was 25,400 in New Brunswick; 34,025 in Nova Scotia; 32,950 in Quebec; and 5,665 in Prince Edward Island
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