Sources disagree on exactly where he was born, whether inKufa (held by the majority),[5]: 71 Kabul, Anbar, Nasa orTermez.[3][5]: 69 Abu Hanifa traveled to theHejaz region of Arabia in his youth, where he studied in theIslamic holy cities ofMecca andMedina.[3] He was named byal-Dhahabi as "one of the geniuses of the sons ofAdam" who "combined jurisprudence, worship, scrupulousness, and generosity".[9]
As his career as a jurist and theologian progressed, he became known for favoring the use ofreason in his jurisprudential rulings, and even in his theology.[3] His school grew after his death, and the majority of its followers would also eventually come to follow theMaturidi school of theology.[3] He left behind two major students,Abu Yusuf andMuhammad al-Shaybani, who would later become celebrated jurists in their own right.
Muslim scholarship states that there is no disagreement with his name being Nu'man. This name is said to mean blood on which the body survives, which some suggest is the soul. An alternate meaning is that this is the name of a pleasantly smelling red or purple flower. A third alternative is that it is thefa'lan (template) from the wordni'mah (blessing), as Muslims[clarification needed] believe Abu Hanifah is God's blessing upon His creation.[5]: 72
How Abu Hanifa earned his patronymic is disputed. According to somelinguists, including Muhyi al-Din,ḥanīfa refers to "inkpot" in Abu Hanifa'sdialect. He was often seen with one, thus earning his name this way.[1] According to this interpretation, his name literally means the "Father of the Inkpot". Alternatively, Hanifah is the feminine form ofhanif, which means a recluse (nasik) or submitter (Muslim).[5]: 72
However, somehistorians contest he earned it as he had a daughter named Hanifa.[1] His name would then mean the "Father of Hanifa". The opposing side believes he never had a daughter with such name.
Historians disagree with regards to where he was born, though they agree he was born during the period of theUmayyad Caliphate. However, they differ regarding the year: 699 CE / 80 AH (held by the majority of classical Muslim scholarship),[5]: 71 [10][11] 696 CE / 77 AH,[12] 689 CE / 70 AH,[13] or 680 CE / 61 AH.[14] Many historians choose the latest date, 699 CE / 80 AH; however,Muhammad Zahid al-Kawthari believed the date of 689 CE / 70 AH is supported by two considerations:[citation needed]
First, Muhammad ibn Makhlad al-Attar considered the narration of Abu Hanifa's son, Hammad, fromMalik ibn Anas to be an example of an older man's narration rather than a younger man.
Second, Abu Hanifa was concerned with who should succeedIbrahim al-Nakha'i after his death in 96 AH. This concern would have only arisen if he was older than 19, since it is considered he only took his religious studies seriously after then. If Abu Hanifa was born in 80 AH, Abu Hanifa would have been 16 at the time of al-Nakhai's death.[14]
Abu Hanifa is thought to be ofPersian ancestry.[4][15] However, he has also been stated to have descended from theZutt,Jats who migrated intoIraq during theIslamic Golden Age.[16][17][18] His grandfather, Zuta, may have been captured by Muslim troops inKabul and sold as a slave in Kufa, where he was purchased and freed by an Arab tribesman of theTaym Allah, a branch of theBanu Bakr. Zuta and his progeny thereafter would have becomeclients of the Taym Allah, hence the sporadic references to Abu Hanifa as "al-Taymi".[19] According to his grandson Isma'il, however, his lineage went back to free Persians who had never been held as slaves. He called Abu Hanifa's great-grandfather "Marzuban", which is an Arabicized form of theSasanian military office ofmarzban, held by governors of the frontier provinces of the Sasanian realm.[6] Another view taken from the Iraqi historianNaji Ma'ruf, One of Iraq's most prominent figures in scholarship and literature, who authored a book establishing Abu Hanifa's Arab origins and ancestry through historical documentation, refuting all previous claims about his non-Arab origins. In his valuable work (The Arabian Origins of Imam Abu Hanifa al-Nu'man ;Arabic:عروبة الإمام أبي حنيفة النعمان), and based on the principle that 'the people ofMecca know best its valleys,'Hanafi sources confirm that he was of Arab stock, and that Thabit ibn al-Nu'man ibn al-Mirzban was from the Banu Yahya ibn Zayd ibn Asad, from the Arab tribe ofal-Azd who migrated fromYemen and settled in Iraqi lands after the collapse of theMarib Dam due to the Great Flood, becoming part of theNabataeans ofIraq.[20] Among the Orientalists, the prominent scholarCarl Brockelmann expressed surprise in his study published in the German Journal of Orientalists at how Iraqi historians had overlooked the Iraqi identity of Abu Hanifa, who was one of the ancient Arabs ofal-Hira, and how they attributed him to people other than his own, despite him being a national symbol of Baghdad. From among the Indian Hanafis,Shah Waliullah Dehlawi affirmed that the great Imam was of Arab origin and no other, and he strongly criticized anyone who attributed him otherwise.[21]
There is scant biographical information about Abu Hanifa. It is generally known that he worked a producer and seller ofkhazz, a type of silk clothing material. He attended lectures on jurisprudence conducted by the Kufan scholarHammad ibn Abi Sulayman (d. 737).[19] He also possibly learnt jurisprudence (fiqh) and narratedHadith from the Meccan scholarAta ibn Abi Rabah (d.c. 733) while onpilgrimage.
When Hammad died, Abu Hanifa succeeded him as the principal authority on Islamic law in Kufa and the chief representative of the Kufan school of jurisprudence.[19] Abu Hanifa gradually gained influence as an authority on legal questions, founding a moderate rationalist school of Islamic jurisprudence that was named after him.[8]
In his reply to al-Mansur, Abu Hanifa said that he was not fit for the post. Al-Mansur, who had his own ideas and reasons for offering the post accused Abu Hanifa of lying.
"If I am lying," Abu Hanifa responded, "then my statement is doubly correct. How can you appoint a liar to the exalted post of aqadi?"
Incensed by this reply, al-Mansur had Abu Hanifa arrested, locked in prison and tortured. It was said that once in prison he was never fed nor cared for.[23] Even in prison, the jurist continued to teach those who were permitted to visit him.
On 15 Rajab 150,[24] (15 August 767[25]) Abu Hanifa died in prison. The cause of his death is not clear, as it was said by some that Abu Hanifa issued a legal opinion for bearing arms against al-Mansur, so al-Mansur had him poisoned.[26] His fellow prisoner and founder ofKaraite Judaism,Anan ben David, was said to have received life-saving counsel from Abu Hanifa.[27] It was said that so many people attended his funeral that the funeral service was repeated six times for the more than 50,000 people who had massed before he was actually buried. The historianal-Khatib said that for a full 20 days people performed funeral prayers for him. Many years later, theAbu Hanifa Mosque was built in theAdhamiyah neighbourhood ofBaghdad. Abu Hanifa also supported the cause ofZayd ibn Ali and Ibrahim al Qamar, bothAlidZaydi Imams.
The structures of the tombs of Abu Hanifa andAbdul Qadir Gilani were destroyed byShah Ismail of theSafavid Empire in 1508.[28] In 1533, theOttomans conquered Baghdad and rebuilt the tombs of Abu Hanifa and Abdul Qadir, as well as other Sunni sites.[29]
The sources from which Abu Hanifa derived Islamic law, in order of importance and preference, were: theQur'an, the authentic narrations of the Muslim prophetMuhammad (known ashadith), consensus of the Muslim community (ijma'), analogical reasoning (qiyas), juristic discretion (istihsan) and the customs of the local population enacting Muslim laws ('urf).[30] The development of analogical reason and the scope and boundaries by which it may be used was recognized by the majority of Muslim jurists, but its establishment as a legal tool was the result of the Hanafi school. While it was likely used by some of his teachers, Abu Hanifa is regarded by modern scholarship as the first to formally adopt and institute analogical reason as a part of Islamic law.[31]
As the fourth Caliph,Ali had transferred the Islamic capital toKufa, and many of thefirst generation of Muslims had settled there. The Hanafi school of law based many of its rulings on the prophetic tradition as transmitted by those first generation Muslims residing in Iraq. Thus, the Hanafi school came to be known as the Kufan or Iraqi school. Ali andAbdullah, son of Masud helped form much of the base of the school, as well as other personalities from the direct relatives (orahl al-bayt) ofMuḥammad from whom Abu Hanifa had studied such asMuhammad al-Baqir. Many jurists and historians had reportedly lived in Kufa, including one of Abu Hanifa's main teachers, Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman.[32][33]
The creed of Imam Abu Hanifa, is found in several short works attributed to him, such as al-Fiqh al-Akbar, al-Fiqh al-Absat, and Kitab al-Wasiyyah. These texts express his belief in the oneness of God, His transcendence beyond creation, and the affirmation of His attributes without asking how. Over time, his creed became a subject of debate among later scholars and different theological schools.
Abu hanifa was not an Athari in creed, rather, it is clear from Abu Hanifas writings that his beliefs are closely in line with the teachings later expressed by the Maturidi school, particularly in their understanding of concepts such as ta'wil (interpretive explanation), istiwa (God's rising over the Throne), kalam (rationalistic theology) and kalam lafzi (the spoken expression of God's speech), however, many modern-daySalafis continue to argue that Abu Hanifa followed anAthari approach to belief. They point to statements attributed to him such as, "God Almighty is called from above, not from below,"[34] and "Whoever says, 'I don't know whether Allah is in the heavens or on the earth,' has committed disbelief."[35] They also cite his words: "Whatever God Almighty mentioned in the Qur'an of the face, hand, and soul, these are attributes of His without how. And it is not said that His hand is His power or His blessing, because that would invalidate the attribute, and this is the saying of the people of predestination and theMut'azila. Rather, His hand is His attribute without how".[36] Based on these phrases,Salafis argue that Abu Hanifa affirmed the divine attributes in their apparent form, without interpretation.
However, classical Hanafi scholars explained these statements differently. Mahrez al-Hilal al-Kuri clarified that when Abu Hanifa said "God Almighty is called from above, not from below," he meant that the sky is simply the direction of supplication, not the dwelling place of God, who is exalted beyond place and direction.[34]Imam Abu Al-layth Al-Samarqandi also explained that when Abu Hanifa said "Whoever says, I don't know whether Allah is in the heavens or on the earth has committed disbelief," this was because such a statement implies that God has a location, which is shirk. He added that if someone says, "I do not know whether the Throne is in the heavens or on the earth," it leads to the same mistake, because it indirectly suggests that God exists in a place.[37]
As for Abu Hanifa's statement about the divine "hand," TheMaturidi scholars understood this to mean that Abu Hanifa was refuting theMutazila who denied God's attributes altogether, not that he intended to affirm a literal hand. According to theMaturidis, Abu Hanifa affirmed the wording of the Qur'an while maintaining that these attributes do not resemble those of creation. Thus, expressions like "hand" are affirmed as attributes mentioned in revelation but are understood in a way that befits God's majesty, without implying form, limb, or direction.
TheMaturidis base their evidence on what Abu Hanifa said in his book al-Fiqh al-Akbar: "It is permissible to say 'in the presence of God, the Exalted and Majestic, without likening Him to anything or specifying how. God's nearness and distance are not determined by the length or shortness of the distance, but rather by the meaning of honor and humiliation."[38] They explained that this statement clearly shows Abu Hanifa performed ta'wil (interpretation), because he interpreted nearness and distance as referring to status and honor rather than physical space, proving that he did not believe God occupies any location. This clearly proves that Abu Hanifah is not Athari, because unlike the Atharis who affirm divine attributes without interpretation, he employed ta’wil.
Abu Hanifa also said, "He is something unlike other things. The meaning of 'thing' is that it is constant without body, substance, accident, limit, opposite, equal, or likeness."[39] This further supports the Maturidi understanding that Abu Hanifa affirmed God's existence as real, yet completely beyond physical form or comparison. By describing God as a "thing" only in the sense of existence and not in the sense of material being, Abu Hanifa made it clear that Allah cannot be confined by body, direction, or limitation in any way
Abu Hanifah, held a position on Istiwa' (Allah's "establishing Himself above the Throne") that aligns closely with theMaturidi andAsh'ari theological perspectives, distinguishing it from the views of later Salafi interpretations, In Al-Wasiyyah, Abu Hanifa said, "Two We recite that Allah is established on the throne, without Him having a need, or being established on the Throne. He is the Protector of the Throne and of other than that, without Him having any need, for if He was in need of anything, He would not have been able to bring this world into existence, nor what happens to it, like the creations. If He had the need to sit (julus) or to establish Himself (istiqrar), then before creating the Throne, where would He have been [that is, according to you?]. Allah is free from what the unjust people attribute to Him".[40]
In Fiqh al-Akbar, Imam Abu Hanifah distinguishes between the eternal, uncreated speech of Allah (kalam nafsi) and the created, verbal forms of the Qur'an (kalam lafzi). He stated: "What God Almighty mentioned in the Qur'an, narrating the stories of Moses and other prophets, peace be upon them, and of Pharaoh and Satan, is all the speech of God Almighty, informing us about them. The speech of God Almighty is uncreated, while the speech of Moses and other created beings is created. The Qur'an is the speech of God Almighty, so it is eternal, not their speech. And Moses, peace be upon him, heard the speech of God Almighty, as in His statement, 'And God spoke to Moses directly.' God Almighty was the one who spoke to them, and He did not speak to Moses, peace be upon him. God Almighty was the Creator from eternity and did not create creation. When God spoke to Moses, He spoke to him with His speech, which is an attribute of His from eternity. All of His attributes are unlike the attributes of created beings. He knows, but not like our knowledge; He has power, but not like our power; He sees, but not like our vision; He speaks, but not like our speech; He hears, but not like our hearing. We speak with instruments and letters, but God Almighty speaks without instruments or letters. Letters are created, but God Almighty's speech is not created."[39]
Abu Hanifah thus affirmed that the essence of Allah's speech (kalam nafsi) is uncreated and eternal, while its verbal expression (kalam lafzi)-such as writing, recitation, or sound-is created. This distinction aligns withMaturidi andAsh'ari theology and contrasts with Salafi positions that reject the created-verbal distinction.
In Al-Fiqh al-Absat, Abu Hanifas student Abu Muti reports the Imam's explanation regarding the question of "Where is Allah?": "I [Abu Muti] said: What if it was said: Where is Allah Almighty? He said: It would be said to him: Allah Almighty existed and there was no place before He created creation, and Allah Almighty existed and there was no place, no creation, and nothing."[41] This statement emphasizes that Allah's existence is independent of time, space, and creation. Before anything was created, there was no "place" for Allah, yet He existed perfectly.
Muhammad al-Shaybani narrated that Abu Hanifa said: It is disliked for a person to say in his supplication: "I ask You by the place of might (ma'qid al-'izz) of Your Throne."[42]Abd al-Hayy al-Lucknawi explained his statement, "and it is disliked," refers to two expressions: one from sitting (julūs) and one from holding/establishing (ma'qid). The first is disliked because it falsely ascribes sitting on the Throne to God, a view held by anthropomorphists. The second, common in supplication, is also disliked because it implies His glory is connected to the Throne, suggesting contingency if linked to something created[42]
He was highly regarded across the various fields of sacred knowledge and significantly influenced the development of Muslim theology.[43] During his lifetime, he was acknowledged as a jurist of the highest calibre.[44] The Shafi'i and prominent hadith scholar,Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, stated that criticism of Abu Hanifa holds no significance, as figures like Abu Hanifa are "on a degree to which Allah - the Exalted - has raised them, in that they are followed and imitated."[45]
Additionally,Abu Hamid al-Ghazali praised Abu Hanifah in hisIhya. InAyn al-Ilm, an abridgement of the Ihya, the author is quoted as saying, "So the greatest scholar for us is Abu Hanifah" and that "even the Imam's counterparts have acknowledge his precedence infiqh (jurisprudence)". Quoting this statement,Ibn Hajar al-Haythami has quotedAl-Shafi'i as saying, "In fiqh people are dependent on Abu Hanifa".[5]: 31–32
Ibn Taymiyya credited Abu Hanifa for his knowledge and addressed the accusations against him, stating, "There is no doubt regarding Imam Abu Hanifa's knowledge. People later attributed many lies to Imam Abu Hanifa, which were all untrue. The aim of such writings was to taint Imam Abu Hanifa".[46] His students,Ibn Kathir andal-Dhahabi, held similar opinions about Abu Hanifa, extensively rebuking accusations against him and praising his contributions.[47][48]
He received the honorific titleal-Imam al-A'zam ("the highly venerated Imām")[49] and his tomb, surmounted by a dome erected by admirers in 1066 is still a shrine for pilgrims.[50] It was restored in 1535 bySuleiman the Magnificent after theOttoman conquest of Baghdad.[29]
Abu Hanifa is considered to have been criticized by several figures, such asSufyān ibn ʿUyaynah, andal-Awzāʿī. According to some later sources, he was perceived byIbn Abi Shaybah andIbn Sa'd and to be a heretic and in opposition to the instructions of Muhammad, and al-Bukhari's teacher,al-Humaydi, was one of the first to pen a refutation of his Abu Hanifa's thought.[51] TheZahiri scholarIbn Hazm quotedSufyan ibn `Uyaynah: "The affairs of men were in harmony until they were changed by Abù Hanìfa in Kùfa, al-Batti in Basra and Màlik in Medina".[52] Early Muslim juristHammad ibn Salamah once related a story about a highway robber who posed as an old man to hide his identity; he then remarked that were the robber still alive he would be a follower of Abu Hanifa.[53]
Additionally, Mahmud al-Ghazali (not to be confused withAbu Hamid) wrote the workal-Mankhul, which, according toIbn Hajar al-Haythami, contains vile fanaticism, despising words and digraceful belittlement of Abu Hanifa. In response to it, al-Kardari authored,Al-Radd wa al-Intisar whichIbn Hajar states, "dispelled evil with evil".[5]: 29–30
Today, the Hanafi school is followed by 45% of Muslims[54] and Abu Hanifa is popularly known amongstSunni Muslims as a man of the highest personal qualities: a performer of good works, remarkable for his self-denial, humble spirit, devotion and pious awe of God.[55]
Abu Hanifa is regarded by some authorities as one of thetabi‘un, the generation after thesahaba, who were the companions of theIslamic prophet,Muhammad. This is based on reports that he met at least foursahaba includingAnas ibn Malik,[56] with some even reporting that he transmittedhadith from him and other companions of Muhammad.[57][58] Others take the view that Abu Hanifa only saw around half a dozen companions, possibly at a young age, and did not directly narrate hadith from them.[57]
Abu Hanifa was born at least 60 years after the death of Muhammad, but during the time of the first generation of Muslims, some of whom lived on until Abu Hanifa's youth. Anas ibn Malik, Muhammad's personal attendant, died in 93 AH and another companion, Abul Tufail Amir bin Wathilah, died in 100 AH, when Abu Hanifa was at least 20 years old. The author of al-Khairat al-Hisan collected information from books of biographies and cited the names of Muslims of the first generation from whom it was reported that the Abu Hanifa had transmitted hadith. He counted 16 of them, includingAnas ibn Malik,Jabir ibn Abd-Allah andSahl ibn Sa'd.[59][5]: 75–79
Al-Nadr ibn Muhammad recalled Abu Hanifa had "a beautiful face, beautiful clothing, and fragrant scent."[63]
His student Abu Yusuf described him as "well-formed, from the best of people in appearance, most eloquent in speech, sweetest in tone, and clearest in expressing his thoughts."[63]
His son Hammad described him as "very handsome, dark-skinned, having good posture, wearing much cologne, tall, not speaking except in reply to someone else, and not involving himself in what did not concern him."[63]
Ibn al-Mubarak remarked he "never saw a man more revered in gatherings, nor better in character and forbearance, than Abu Hanifa."[63]
In onehadith, Abu Hanifa once said about Imam Ja'far: "I have not seen anyone with more knowledge than Ja'far ibn Muhammad."[67] However, in another hadith, Abu Hanifa said: "I met withZayd (Ja'far's uncle) and I never saw in his generation a person more knowledgeable, as quick a thinker, or more eloquent than he was."[68]
Imam Abu Hanifa was quoted as saying thatJahm ibn Safwan (d. 128/745) went so far in his denial ofanthropomorphism (Tashbih) as to declare that 'God is not something (Allah laysa bi shay')' whereasMuqatil ibn Sulayman (d. 150/767) likened God to His creatures.[69](needs better source)
Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi narrated in hisTarikh Baghdad (History of Baghdad) that Imam Abu Hanifa said:
^Full nameAbū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā ibn Marzubān al-Taymī al-Kūfī (Arabic:أَبُو حَنِيفَة ٱلنُّعْمَان بْن ثَابِت بْن زُوطَا بْن مَرْزُبَان ٱلتَّيْمِيّ ٱلْكُوفِيّ); he is also known by the titlesShaykh al-Islam ('Shaykh of Islam'),al-Imam al-A'zam ('the Greatest Imam'), andSiraj al-A'imma ('Lamp of the Imams').[3][4]
^abcdefgPakatchi, Ahmad and Umar, Suheyl, "Abū Ḥanīfa", in:Encyclopaedia Islamica, Editors-in-Chief: Wilferd Madelung and, Farhad Daftary.
^abS. H. Nasr (1975), "The religious sciences", in R.N. Frye,The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4, Cambridge University Press. p.474: "Abū Ḥanīfah, who is often called the "grand imam"(al-Imam al-'Azam) was Persian
^abcdefghiIbn Hajar al-Haythami (August 2022). Hussain al-Azhari, Hafiz Ather (ed.).The Greatest Imam: Abu Hanifah al-Nu'man. Translated by Ashraf, Muhammad Nizam. Bolton: Nizami Publications.ISBN9781739680503.
^Suwaidan, Dr. Tareq Al.Imam Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man. الابداع الفكري.Abu Hanifa, may God have mercy on him, was born in Kufa in 80 AH, as the preponderant opinion states. This is what al-Khattab mentioned in his narration of Isma'il, Abu Hanifa's grandson, ...
^abadh-Dhahabi.The Virtues of Imam Abu Hanifa. Visions of Reality Publishing. pp. 9–10.
^Cyril Glasse, "The New Encyclopedia of Islam", Published by Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. p.23: "Abu Hanifah, a Persian, was one of the great jurists of Islam and one of the historic Sunni Mujtahids"
^abBurak, Guy (2015).The Second Formation of Islamic Law: The Ḥanafī School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1.ISBN978-1-107-09027-9.
^See: *Reuben Levy,Introduction to the Sociology of Islam, pg. 236–237.London: Williams and Norgate, 1931–1933. *Chiragh Ali, The Proposed Political, Legal and Social Reforms. Taken from Modernist Islam 1840–1940: A Sourcebook, pg. 280. Edited byCharles Kurzman.New York City:Oxford University Press, 2002. *Mansoor Moaddel,Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse, pg. 32.Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2005. *Keith Hodkinson,Muslim Family Law: A Sourcebook, pg. 39. Beckenham: Croom Helm Ltd., Provident House, 1984. *Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary, edited by Hisham Ramadan, pg. 18.Lanham, Maryland:Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. *Christopher Roederrer andDarrel Moellendorf [de],Jurisprudence, pg. 471. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd., 2007. *Nicolas Aghnides,Islamic Theories of Finance, pg. 69. New Jersey: Gorgias Press LLC, 2005. *Kojiro Nakamura, "Ibn Mada's Criticism of Arab Grammarians."Orient, v. 10, pgs. 89–113. 1974
^Nadwi, Sayyid Ijteba.Nuqoosh-e-Tabinda. (in Urdu) (1994 First ed). Jamia Nagar: Dar Irnaws p. 254
^Serat Bratasoenoe kawewahi pepeṭikan piwoelang saé [Abu Hanifa also said, "Whoever says, 'I do not know whether God is in heaven or on earth,' has committed disbelief," because by saying this he has imagined that God has a location, thus becoming a polytheist. God Almighty said, "The Most Merciful is established on the Throne." If he says, "I accept this verse, but I do not know whether the Throne is in heaven or on earth," then he has also committed disbelief. This essentially returns to the first meaning, because if he says, "I do not know whether the Throne is in heaven or on earth," it is as if he said, "I do not know whether God Almighty is in heaven or on earth."] (in Arabic). 1863. p. 16.
^Khan, Ahmad (2023).Heresy and the formation of medieval Islamic orthodoxy: the making of Sunnism, from the eighth to the eleventh century. Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 27–37,45–46,57–68.ISBN978-1-009-09837-3.
^Camilla Adang, "This Day I have Perfected Your Religion For You: A Zahiri Conception of Religious Authority," p.33. Taken fromSpeaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. Ed. Gudrun Krämer andSabine Schmidtke.Leiden:Brill Publishers, 2006
Abū Ḥanīfah: Muslim jurist and theologian, inEncyclopædia Britannica Online, by Zafar Ishaq Ansari, The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Thinley Kalsang Bhutia, Surabhi Sinha and Adam Zeidan
