FollowingMuhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakrsucceeded the leadership of theMuslim community as the first caliph, being elected atSaqifa. His election was contested by a number of rebellious tribal leaders. During his reign, he overcame a number of uprisings, collectively known as theRidda Wars, as a result of which he was able to consolidate and expand the rule of the Muslim state over the entireArabian Peninsula. He also commanded the initial incursions into the neighboringSasanian andByzantine empires, which in the years following his death, would eventually result in the Muslimconquests of Persia andthe Levant. Apart from politics, Abu Bakr is also credited for the compilation of theQuran, of which he had a personal caliphal codex. Prior to dying in August 634, Abu Bakr nominatedUmar (r. 634–644) as his successor. Along with Muhammad, Abu Bakr is buried in theGreen Dome at theAl-Masjid an-Nabawi inMedina, thesecond holiest site in Islam. He died of illness after a reign of 2 years, 2 months and 14 days, the only Rashidun caliph to die of natural causes.
Though Abu Bakr's reign was brief, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time, theSassanian Empire and theByzantine Empire. He set in motion a historical trajectory that, within a few decades, would lead to the establishment of one of the largest empires in history. His decisive victory over the local Arab rebel forces marks a significant chapter inIslamic history.Sunni tradition revere Abu Bakr as the first of theRashidun caliphs and the greatest individual after theprophets and messengers, whileShia tradition views Abu Bakr as an usurper of the caliphate and an adversary of theahl al-bayt.
The nicknames (kunya) literal meaning of "Abu Bakr" is "father of youth," or "father of the firstborn," derived from the core word Bakr, meaning "youth," or "young one."[2][3]
It is said that this name was given to him as a child when he grew up among his Bedouin tribe and developed a fondness for camels. He played with the camel calves and goats, earning this nickname "Abu Bakr", meaning "father of the young (camel)." A "bakr" in Arabic is generally used to refer to a young, but already grown camel.
One of his early titles, preceding his conversion to Islam, wasAteeq, meaning "saved one". In a weak narration in Tirmidhi,[4] Muhammad later restated this title when he said that Abu Bakr is the "Ateeq of Allah from the fire" meaning "saved" or "secure" and the association with Allah showing how close to and protected he is by Allah.[5]
He was calledal-Ṣiddīq ("the truthful")[6] by Muhammad after he believed him in the event ofIsra and Mi'raj when many people did not, andAli confirmed that title several times.[7] He was also referred to in the Quran as the "second of the two in the cave" in reference to the event ofhijra, where with Muhammad he hid in the cave inJabal Thawr from theMeccan party that was sent after them.[8]
While traditional sources translate this epithet as "the truthful", an equally likely interpretation is "the tax collector" (i.e., the collector ofṣadaqa).[9]
He was honorifically called "al-sahib" (the companion) in the Qur'an, describing his role as a companion of Muhammad when hiding from theQuraysh in theJabal Thawr cave during theHijra toMedina:[10]
˹It does not matter˺ if you ˹believers˺ do not support him, for Allah did in fact support him when the disbelievers drove him out ˹of Mecca˺ and he was only one of two. While they both were in the cave, he reassuredhis companion, "Do not worry; Allah is certainly with us". So Allah sent down His serenity upon the Prophet, supported him with forces you ˹believers˺ did not see, and made the word of the disbelievers lowest, while the Word of Allah is supreme. And Allah is Almighty, All-Wise.[9:40 -The Clear Quran]
In ahadith narrated by Ibn Abbas of the exegesis ofchapter 92 of the Qur'an by imamAl-Suyuti, we find the word "al-atqā" (Arabic:الأتقى), meaning "the most pious", "the most righteous", or "the most God-fearing", is referring to Abu Bakr as an example for the believers.[10][11]
And so I have warned you of a raging Fire, in which none will burn except the most wretched—who deny and turn away. Butthe righteous will be spared from it – who donate ˹some of˺ their wealth only to purify themselves, not in return for someone's favours, but seeking the pleasure of their Lord, the Most High. They will certainly be pleased.[92:14-21 -The Clear Quran]
"Al-Awwāh" (Arabic:الأواه) means someone who supplicates abundantly to God, someone who is merciful and the gentle-hearted.Ibrahim al-Nakha'i said that Abu Bakr has also been called al-awwāh for his merciful character.[10]
Abu Bakr was born inMecca sometime in 573 to a rich family in the Banu Taym tribe of the Quraysh tribal confederacy.[12] His father wasAbu Quhafa and his mother wasUmm al-Khayr.[13]
He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time, among theBedouins who called themselvesAhl-i-Ba'eer (the people of the camel) and developed a particular fondness for camels. In his early years, he played with the camel calves and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname (kunya) "Abu Bakr", the father of the camel's calf.[14][15]
Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, Abu Bakr was literate and developed a fondness forpoetry. He used to attend the annual fair atUkaz, and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory and a good knowledge of thegenealogy of the Arab tribes, their stories and their politics.[16]
A story is preserved that once when he was a child, his father took him to theKaaba and asked him to pray before theidols. His father went away to attend to some other business, and Abu Bakr was left alone. Addressing an idol, Abu Bakr said, "O my God, I am in need of beautiful clothes; bestow them on me". The idol remained indifferent. Then he addressed another idol, saying, "O God, give me some delicious food. See that I am so hungry". The idol remained cold. That exhausted the patience of young Abu Bakr. He lifted a stone, and, addressing an idol, said, "Here I am aiming a stone; if you are a god protect yourself". Abu Bakr hurled the stone at the idol and left theKaaba.[17] Regardless, it recorded that prior to converting to Islam, Abu Bakr practiced as ahanif and never worshipped idols.[18]
On his return from a business trip inYemen, his friends informed him that in his absence, Muhammad had declared himself amessenger of God. According to a report of the historianAl-Tabari, in hisTarikh al-Tabari, Abu Bakr may have converted to Islam after around fifty people, though this is disputed.[19] Some Sunni and all theShi'a believe that the second person to publicly accept Muhammed as the messenger of God was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first being Muhammad's wifeKhadija.[20]Ibn Kathir, in his bookAl Bidaya Wal Nihayah, disregards this. He stated that the first woman to embrace Islam was Khadija.Zayd ibn Harithah was the first freed slave to embrace Islam. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first child to embrace Islam, for he has not even reached the age of puberty at that time, while Abu Bakr was the first free man to embrace Islam.[21][22][13][6]
His wifeQutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife,Umm Ruman, became a Muslim. All his children accepted Islam exceptAbd al-Rahman, from whom Abu Bakr disassociated himself. His conversion also brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert,[23][24] and presented Islam to other friends in such a way that many of them also accepted the faith. Those who converted to Islam at the dawah of Abu Bakr were:[25]
Khalid ibn Sa'id, who acted as a general under the Rashidun army in Syria
Abu Bakr's acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission.Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves, however, there was no such protection and they commonly experienced persecution. Abu Bakr felt compassion for slaves, so he purchased eight (four men and four women) and then freed them, paying 40,000dinar for their freedom.[26][27] He was known to have freed slaves, includingBilal ibn Rabah, who later became the firstMuezzin.
Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men.[28] When his father asked him why he did not liberate strong and young slaves, who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake ofGod, and not for his own sake.
For three years after the birth of Islam, Muslims kept their faith private. In 613, according to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was commanded by God to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr.[29] In a fit of fury, the young men of theQuraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr and beat him until he lost consciousness.[30] Following this incident, his mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr was persecuted many times by the Quraysh. Though Abu Bakr's beliefs would have been defended by his own clan, it would not be so for the entire Quraysh tribe.
In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against theBanu Hashim. Muhammad, along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were cut off in a pass away fromMecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that ofimprisonment.[31] Before it, many Muslims migrated toAbyssinia (nowEthiopia andEritrea). Abu Bakr, feeling distressed, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his, Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Qurayshites. Abu Bakr went back to Mecca, which was a relief for him. But soon due to the pressure of the Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr.
In 620, Muhammad's uncle and protector,Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, and Muhammad's wifeKhadija died. Abu Bakr's daughterAisha was betrothed to Muhammad; however, it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later. In 620, Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad'sIsra and Mi'raj.[32]
In 622, on the invitation of the Muslims of Yathrib (laterMedina), Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate there. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans the Muslims had taken out, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh, led byIkrima, attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad to Medina. Due to the danger posed by the Quraysh, they did not take the road, but moved in the opposite direction, taking refuge in a cave inJabal Thawr, some five miles south of Mecca.Abd Allah ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr, would listen to the plans and discussions of the Quraysh, and at night, he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave.Asma bint Abi Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr, brought them meals every day.[33] Aamir, a servant of Abu Bakr, would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night, where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave but was unable to see them. Abu Bakr was referenced in theQur'an in verse 40 ofsuraat-Tawba:
"If ye help him not, still God helped him when those who disbelieve drove him forth, thethaniya ithnayn (second of the two i.e. Abu Bakr); when they two were in the cave, when he said unto hissahib (companion i.e. Abu Bakr): Grieve not. Lo! Allah is with us."[34]
Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari lived at Sunh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina, he bought another house near Muhammad's.[35]
While the climate of Mecca was dry, the climate of Medina wasdamp, and because of this, most of the migrants fell sick on arrival. Abu Bakr contracted a fever for several days, during which time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. In Mecca, Abu Bakr was a wholesale trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He opened his new store at Sunh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already married to Muhammad, was sent on to Muhammad's house after a simple marriage ceremony, further strengthening relations between Abu Bakr and Muhammad.[36]
In 624, Abu Bakr was involved in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca, known as theBattle of Badr, but did not fight, instead acting as one of the guards of Muhammad's tent. In relation to this, Ali later asked his associates as to who they thought was the bravest among men. Everyone stated that Ali was the bravest of all men. Ali then replied:
No. Abu Bakr is the bravest of men. In the Battle of Badr we had prepared a pavillion for the prophet, but when we were asked to offer ourselves for the task of guarding it none came forward except Abu Bakr. With a drawn sword he took his stand by the side of Prophet of Allah and guarded him from the infidels by attacking those who dared to proceed in that direction. He was therefore the bravest of men.[37]
In Sunni accounts, during one such attack, two discs from Abu Bakr's shield penetrated into Muhammad's cheeks. Abu Bakr went forward with the intention of extracting these discs butAbu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah requested he leave the matter to him, losing his twoincisors during the process. In these stories subsequently Abu Bakr, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety.[36]
In 625, he participated in theBattle of Uhud, in which the majority of the Muslims were routed and he himself was wounded.[38] Before the battle began, his sonAbd al-Rahman, at that time still non-Muslim and fighting on the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad.[39] In the second phase of the battle,Khalid ibn al-Walid's cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat.[40][41]
In 627 he participated in theBattle of the Trench and also in theInvasion of Banu Qurayza.[36] In the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad divided the ditch into a number of sectors and a contingent was posted to guard each sector. One of these contingents was under the command of Abu Bakr. The enemy made frequent assaults in an attempt to cross the ditch, all of which were repulsed. To commemorate this event, amosque, later known as 'Masjid-i-Siddiq',[42] was constructed at the site where Abu Bakr repulsed the charges of the enemy.[36]
Abu Bakr took part in theBattle of Khaybar. Khaybar had eight fortresses, the strongest and most well-guarded of which was called Al-Qamus. Muhammad sent Abu Bakr with a group of warriors to attempt to take it, but they were unable to do so. Muhammad also sent Umar with a group of warriors, but Umar could not conquer Al-Qamus either.[43][44][45][46] Some other Muslims also attempted to capture the fort, but they were unsuccessful as well.[47] Finally, Muhammad sent Ali, who defeated the enemy leader,Marhab.[45][48]
In 629, Muhammad sentAmr ibn al-As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal, followed byAbu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in response to a call for reinforcements. Abu Bakr and Umar commanded an army under al-Jarrah. They attacked and defeated the enemy.[49]
In 630, the Muslim army wasambushed by archers from the local tribes as it passed through the valley ofHunayn, around eleven miles northeast of Mecca. Surprised, the advance guard of the Muslim army fled in panic. There was considerable confusion, and the camels, horses and men ran into one another in an attempt to seek cover. Muhammad, however, stood firm. Only nine companions remained around him, including Abu Bakr. Under Muhammad's instruction, his uncleAbbas shouted at the top of his voice, "O Muslims, come to the Prophet of Allah". The call was heard by the Muslim soldiers and they gathered beside Muhammad. When the Muslims had gathered in sufficient number, Muhammad ordered a charge against the enemy. In the hand-to-hand fight that followed the tribes were routed and fled toAutas.
Muhammad posted a contingent to guard the Hunayn pass and led the main army to Autas. In the confrontation at Autas, the tribes could not withstand the Muslim onslaught. Believing that continued resistance would be useless, the tribes broke camp and retired toTa'if.
Abu Bakr was commissioned by Muhammad to lead theattack against Ta'if. The tribes shut themselves in the fort and refused to come out in the open. The Muslims employed catapults, but without tangible result. The Muslims attempted to use atestudo formation, in which a group of soldiers shielded by a cover of cowhide advanced to set fire to the gate. However, the enemy threw red hot scraps of iron on the testudo, rendering it ineffective.
The siege dragged on for two weeks, and there was still no sign of weakness in the fort. Muhammad held a council of war. Abu Bakr advised that the siege might be raised and that God make arrangements for the fall of the fort. The advice was accepted, and in December 630, the siege of Ta'if was raised and the Muslim army returned toMecca. A few days later,Malik bin Awf, the commander, came to Mecca and became a Muslim.[53]
In 630–631 (AH 9), Muhammad assigned Abu Bakr as theamir al-hajj to lead around 300 pilgrims from Medina to Mecca.[54] In 631 AD, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform theHajj according to the new Islamic way and appointed Abu Bakr as the leader of the delegation. The day after Abu Bakr and his party left for the Hajj, Muhammad received a new revelation: SurahTawbah, the ninth chapter of the Quran.[55] It is related that when this revelation came, someone suggested to Muhammad that he should send news of it to Abu Bakr. Muhammad said that only a man of his house could proclaim the revelation.[44]
Muhammad summoned Ali and asked him to proclaim a portion of Surah Tawbah to the people on the day of sacrifice when they assembled atMina. Ali went forth on Muhammad's slit-eared camel and overtook Abu Bakr. When Ali joined the party, Abu Bakr wanted to know whether he had come to give orders or to convey them. Ali said that he had not come to replace Abu Bakr as Amir Al-Hajj and that his only mission was to convey a special message to the people on behalf of Muhammad.[56]
At Mecca, Abu Bakr presided at the Hajj ceremony, and Ali read the proclamation on behalf of Muhammad. The main points of the proclamation were:
Henceforward the non-Muslims were not to be allowed to visit theKaaba or perform the pilgrimage;
Polytheism was not to be tolerated. Where the Muslims had any agreement with the polytheists, such agreements would be honored for the stipulated periods. Where there were no agreements, a grace period of four months was provided, and thereafter no quarter was to be given to the polytheists.
From the day this proclamation was made, a new era dawned, and Islam alone was to be supreme in Arabia.
In 632, during the final weeks of his life, Muhammad ordered an expedition into Syria to avenge the defeat of the Muslims in theBattle of Mu'tah some years previously. Leading the campaign wasUsama ibn Zayd, whose father, Muhammad's erstwhile adopted sonZayd ibn Harithah, had been killed in the earlier conflict.[60] No more than twenty years old, inexperienced and untested, Usama's appointment was controversial, becoming especially problematic whenveterans such as Abu Bakr,Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, andSa'd ibn Abi Waqqas were placed under his command.[61][62] Nevertheless, the expedition was dispatched, though soon after setting off, news was received of Muhammad's death, forcing the army to return to Medina.[61] The campaign was not reengaged until after Abu Bakr's ascension to the caliphate, at which point he chose to reaffirm Usama's command, which ultimately led to its success.[63]
There are a number of traditions regarding Muhammad's final days which have been used to reinforce the idea of the great friendship and trust which is existed between him and Abu Bakr. In one such episode, as Muhammad was nearing death, he found himself unable to lead prayers as he usually would. He instructed Abu Bakr to take his place, ignoring concerns from Aisha that her father was too emotionally delicate for the role. Abu Bakr subsequently took up the position, and when Muhammad entered the prayer hall one morning duringFajr prayers, Abu Bakr attempted to step back to let him to take up his normal place and lead. Muhammad, however, allowed him to continue. In a related incident, around this time, Muhammad ascended the pulpit and addressed the congregation, saying, "God has given his servant the choice between this world and that which is with God and he has chosen the latter". Abu Bakr, understanding this to mean that Muhammad did not have long to live, responded, "Nay, we and our children will be your ransom". Muhammad consoled his friend and ordered that all the doors leading tothe mosque be closed aside from that which led from Abu Bakr's house, "for I know no one who is a better friend to me than he".[64][note 1]
Upon Muhammad's death, the Muslim community was unprepared for the loss of its leader and many experienced a profound shock. Umar was particularly affected, instead declaring that Muhammad had gone to consult with God and would soon return, threatening anyone who would say that Muhammad was dead.[66] Abu Bakr, having returned to Medina,[67] calmed Umar by showing him Muhammad's body, convincing him of his death.[68] He then addressed those who had gathered at the mosque, saying, "If anyone worships Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If anyone worships God, God is alive, immortal", thus putting an end to any idolising impulse in the population. He then concluded with verses from the Quran: "(O Muhammad) Verily you will die, and they also will die." (39:30), "Muhammad is no more than an Apostle; and indeed many Apostles have passed away, before him, If he dies Or is killed, will you then Turn back on your heels? And he who turns back On his heels, not the least Harm will he do to Allah And Allah will give reward to those Who are grateful." (3:144)[69][66]
In the immediate aftermath of Muhammad's death, a gathering of theAnsar (Natives of Medina) took place in theSaqifa (courtyard) of theBanu Sa'ida clan.[71][72][73] The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of theMuslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of theMuhajirun (Immigrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate.[74]
Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, upon learning of the meeting, became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, would likely result in dissension, as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and Abu Ubaidah by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices.Habab ibn Mundhir, a veteran from the battle of Badr, countered with his own suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves.[75]William Muir, theorientalist, gives the following observation of the situation:[76]
The moment was critical. The unity of the Faith was at stake. A divided power would fall to pieces, and all might be lost. The mantle of the Prophet must fall upon one Successor, and on one alone. The sovereignty of Islam demanded an undivided Caliphate, and Arabia would acknowledge no master but from amongst Koreish.
Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. The meeting broke up when a violent scuffle erupted between Umar and the chief of the Banu Sa'ida,Sa'd ibn Ubadah. This event suggests that the choice of Abu Bakr was not unanimous, with emotions running high as a result of the disagreement.[77]
Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention because of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali, initially refused to acknowledge his authority.[71] Among Shi'ites, it is also argued that Ali hadpreviously been appointed as Muhammad's heir, with the election being seen as in contravention to the latter's wishes.[78] Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali, resulting inan altercation which may have involved violence.[79] However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his allegiance.[80]
After assuming the office of Caliph, Abu Bakr's first address was as follows:
I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me, and if I do wrong, set me right. Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery. The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights, if God wills, and the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have wrested from him the rights of others, if God wills. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger. But if I disobey God and His Messenger, you owe me no obedience. Arise for your prayer, God have mercy upon you. (Al-Bidaayah wan-Nihaayah 6:305, 306)
Abu Bakr's reign lasted for 27 months, during which he crushed the rebellion of the Arab tribes throughout theArabian Peninsula in the successfulRidda wars. In the last months of his rule, he sent Khalid ibn al-Walid on conquestsagainst the Sassanid Empire inMesopotamia andagainst the Byzantine Empire inSyria. This would set in motion a historical trajectory[81] (continued later on byUmar andUthman ibn Affan) that in just a few short decades would lead to one of thelargest empires in history. He had little time to pay attention to the administration of state, though state affairs remained stable during his Caliphate. On the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, he agreed to draw a salary from the state treasury and discontinue his cloth trade.
Abu Bakr's caliphate at its territorial peak in August 634
Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, with several Arab tribes launching revolts, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. These insurgencies and the caliphate's responses to them are collectively referred to as the Ridda wars ("Wars of Apostasy").[82]
The opposition movements came in two forms. One type challenged the political power of the nascent caliphate as well as the religious authority of Islam with the acclamation of rival ideologies, headed by political leaders who claimed the mantle of prophethood in the manner that Muhammad had done. These rebellions include:[82]
These leaders are all denounced in Islamic histories as "false prophets".[82]
The second form of opposition movement was more strictly political in character. Some of the revolts of this type took the form of tax rebellions inNajd among tribes such as theBanu Fazara and Banu Tamim. Other dissenters, while initially allied to the Muslims, used Muhammad's death as an opportunity to attempt to restrict the growth of the new Islamic state. They include some of theRabi'a ibn Nizar inEastern Arabia, theAzd inOman, as well as among theKinda andKhawlan inYemen.[82]
Abu Bakr, likely understanding that maintaining firm control over the disparate tribes of Arabia was crucial to ensuring the survival of the state, suppressed the insurrections with military force. He dispatchedKhalid ibn Walid and a body of troops to subdue the uprisings in Najd as well as that of Musaylimah, who posed the most serious threat. Concurrent to this,Shurahbil ibn Hasana andAl-Ala'a Al-Hadrami were sent to Bahrayn, whileIkrima ibn Abi Jahl,Hudhayfah al-Bariqi andArfaja al-Bariqi were instructed to conquer Oman. Finally,Al-Muhajir ibn Abi Umayya and Khalid ibn Asid were sent to Yemen to aid the local governor in re-establishing control. Abu Bakr also made use of diplomatic means in addition to military measures. Like Muhammad before him, he usedmarriage alliances and financial incentives to bind former enemies to the caliphate. For instance, a member of the Banu Hanifa who sided with the Muslims was rewarded with the granting of a land estate. Similarly, a Kindah rebel namedAl-Ash'ath ibn Qays, after repenting and re-joining Islam, was later given land in Medina as well as the hand of Abu Bakr's sister Umm Farwa in marriage.[83]
At their heart, the Ridda movements were challenges to the political and religious supremacy of the Islamic state. Through his success in suppressing the insurrections, Abu Bakr had in effect continued the political consolidation which had begun under Muhammad's leadership with relatively little interruption. By wars' end, he had established an Islamic hegemony over the entirety of theArabian Peninsula.[84]
With Arabia having united under a single centralised state with a formidable military, the region could now be viewed as a potential threat to the neighbouring Byzantine andSasanian empires. It may be that Abu Bakr, reasoning that it was inevitable that one of these powers would launch a pre-emptive strike against the youthful caliphate, decided that it was better to deliver the first blow himself. Regardless of the caliph's motivations, in 633, small forces were dispatched into Iraq andPalestine, capturing several towns. Though the Byzantines and Sassanians were certain to retaliate, Abu Bakr had reason to be confident; the two empires were militarily exhausted after centuries of war against each other, making it likely that any forces sent to Arabia would be diminished and weakened.[85]
An even more pressing advantage was the effectiveness and zeal of the Muslim fighters, the latter of which was partially based on their certainty of the righteousness of their cause. Additionally, the general belief among the Muslims was that the community must be defended at all costs.
Though Abu Bakr had started these initial conflicts which eventually resulted in the Islamicconquests of Mesopotamia, Persia andthe Levant, he did not live to see those regions conquered by Islam, instead leaving the task to his successors.[85]
Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving the Quran in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musaylimah in theBattle of Yamama in 632,Umar saw that some five hundred of the Muslims who hadmemorised the Quran had been killed in wars. Fearing that it might become lost or corrupted, Umar requested that Abu Bakr authorise the compilation and preservation of the scriptures in written format. The caliph was initially hesitant, being quoted as saying, "how can we do that which the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless and keep him, did not himself do?" He eventually relented, however, and appointedZayd ibn Thabit, who had previously served as one of the scribes of Muhammad, for the task of gathering the scattered verses. The fragments were recovered from every quarter, including from the ribs of palm branches, scraps of leather, stone tablets and "from the hearts of men". The collected work was transcribed onto sheets and verified through comparison with Quran memorisers.[86][87] The finished codex, termed theMus'haf, was presented to Abu Bakr, who prior to his death, bequeathed it to his successor Umar.[88] Upon Umar's own death, theMus'haf was left to his daughterHafsa, who had been one of the wives of Muhammad. It was this volume, borrowed from Hafsa, which formed the basis ofUthman's prototype, which became the definitive text of the Quran. All later editions are derived from this original.[89][note 2]
A 19th-century miniature from a manuscript ofHamla-i Haydari, depicting Abu Bakr dying in the presence ofAli.
On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and did not recover. He developed a high fever and was confined to bed. His illness was prolonged, and when his condition worsened, he felt that his end was near. Realising this, he sent for Ali and requested him to perform hisghusl since Ali had also done it for Muhammad.
Abu Bakr felt that he should nominate his successor so that the issue should not be a cause of dissension among the Muslims after his death. Though there was already controversy over Ali not having been appointed,[91] He appointed Umar for this role after discussing the matter with some companions. Some of them favoured the nomination and others disliked it due to the tough nature of Umar.
Abu Bakr thus dictated his last testament toUthman ibn Affan as follows:
In the name of Most Merciful God. This is the last will and testament of Abu Bakr bin Abu Quhafa, when he is in the last hour of the world, and the first of the next; an hour in which the infidel must believe, the wicked be convinced of their evil ways, I nominate Umar ibn al Khattab as my successor. Therefore, hear to him and obey him. If he acts right, confirm his actions. My intentions are good, but I cannot see the future results. However, those who do ill shall render themselves liable to severe account hereafter. Fare you well. May you be ever attended by the Divine favor of blessing.[92]
The historianAl-Tabari, in regards to Abu Bakr's appearance, records the following interaction between Aisha and her paternal nephew, Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr:[94]
When she was in herhowdah and saw a man from among the Arabs passing by, she said, "I have not seen a man more like Abu Bakr than this one." We said to her, "Describe Abu Bakr." She said, "A slight, white man, thin-bearded and bowed. His waist wrapper would not hold but would fall down around his loins. He had a lean face, sunken eyes, a bulging forehead, and trembling knuckles".
Referencing another source, Al-Tabari further describes him as being "white mixed with yellowness, of good build, slight, bowed, thin, tall like a male palm tree, hook-nosed, lean-faced, sunken-eyed, thin-shanked, and strong-thighed. He used to dye himself withhenna and black dye".[94]
Although Abu Bakr's caliphate lasted only two years, two months, and fifteen days, it encompassed successful campaigns against theSassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire, the two most powerful empires of the era. He is known by the titles asAl-Siddiq,Atiq andCompanion of the Cave.[95]
As the first caliph inIslamic history, Abu Bakr was also the first to nominate a successor. Notably, he returned his entirecaliphal allowance to the statetreasury upon his death, a unique act among caliphs.[21] Additionally, he purchased the land forAl-Masjid al-Nabawi.[96]
Sunni Muslim tradition considers Abu Bakr the best man after the prophets. He is also regarded as one ofthe Ten Promised Paradise (al-'Ashara al-Mubashshara) whom Muhammad testified were destined for Paradise. Abu Bakr is recognized as the "Successor of Allah's Messenger" (Khalifa Rasulullah), the first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs – i.e., theRashidun – and the rightful successor to Muhammad. He was always the closest friend and confidant of Muhammad, accompanying him during every major event. Muhammad consistently honored Abu Bakr's wisdom. He is regarded among the greatest of Muhammad's followers; as Umar ibn al-Khattab stated, "If the faith of Abu Bakr were weighed against the faith of the people of the earth, the faith of Abu Bakr would outweigh theirs."[97]
Shia Muslims believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was supposed to assume theleadership and that he had been publicly and unambiguously appointed by Muhammad as his successor atGhadir Khumm. It is also believed that Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to take over power in the Muslim nation after Muhammad's death in a coup d'état against Ali.
MostTwelver Shia (as the main branch of Shia Islam, with 85% of all Shias)[98][99][100][101] have a negative view of Abu Bakr because, after Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr refused to grant Muhammad's daughter,Fatimah, the lands of the village ofFadak which she claimed her father gave to her as a gift before his death. He refused to accept the testimony of her witnesses, so she claimed the land would still belong to her as inheritance from her deceased father. However, Abu Bakr replied by saying that Muhammad told him that the prophets of God do not leave as inheritance any worldly possessions and on this basis he refused to give her the lands of Fadak.[102] However, as Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy notes in his bookA Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims, Muhammad inherited a maid servant, five camels, and ten sheep. Shia Muslims believe that prophets can receive inheritance, and can pass on inheritance to others as well.[103] In addition, Shias claim that Muhammad had given Fadak to Fatimah during his lifetime,[104] and Fadak was therefore a gift to Fatimah, not inheritance. This view has also been supported by the Abbasid ruleral-Ma'mun.[105]
Twelvers also accuse Abu Bakr of participating in theburning of the house of Ali and Fatima.[106] The Twelver Shia believe that Abu Bakr sentKhalid ibn Walid to crush those who were in favour of Ali's caliphate (seeRidda Wars). The Twelver Shia strongly contest the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of theQuran, claiming that they should have accepted the copy of the book in the possession of Ali.[107]
However, Sunnis argue that Ali and Abu Bakr were not enemies and that Ali named his sons Abi Bakr in honor of Abu Bakr.[108] After the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Abu Bakr's sonMuhammad ibn Abu Bakr. The Twelver Shia view Muhammad as one of the greatest companions of Ali.[109] When he was killed by theUmayyads,[109] Aisha, the third wife of Muhammad (the prophet), raised and taught her nephewQasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. Qasim's mother was from Ali's family and his daughterFarwah bint al-Qasim was married toMuhammad al-Baqir and was the mother ofJa'far al-Sadiq. Therefore, Qasim was the grandson of Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq.
Zaydi Shias, the largest group amongst the Shia before theSafavid dynasty and currently the second-largest group (although its population is only about 5% of all Shia Muslims),[110][111][112] believe that on the last hour ofZayd ibn Ali (the uncle of Ja'far al-Sadiq), he was betrayed by the people inKufa who said to him: "May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab?" Zayd ibn Ali said, "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them [...] when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Quran and the Sunnah".[113][114][115]
In a similar view, theIsmaili Shias under the leadership of theAga Khans have also come to accept the caliphates of the first three caliphs, including that of Abu Bakr:
"In the present Imamat, the final reconciliation between the Shia and Sunni doctrines has been publicly proclaimed by myself on exactly the same lines asHazrat Aly did at the death of the Prophet and during the first thirty years after that.The political and worldly Khalifat was accepted by Hazrat Aly in favour of the three first Khalifs voluntarily and with goodwill for the protection of the interests of the Muslims throughout the world. We Ismailis now in the same spirit accept the Khalifat of the first Khalifs and such other Khalifs as during the last thirteen centuries helped the cause of Islam, politically, socially and from a worldly point of view. On the other hand, the Spiritual Imamat remained with Hazrat Aly and remains with his direct descendants always alive till the day of Judgement"
— Aga Khan III - Selected Speeches and Writings of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, p. 1417[116]
^Such incidents are used by some Sunnis to justify Abu Bakr's later ascension to the caliphate as they display the regard with which Muhammad held the former. However, several other companions had held similar positions of authority and trust, including the leading of prayers. Such honours may therefore not hold much importance in matters of succession.[65]
^Many early sources, especially but not exclusivelyShi'ite, believe that there was also a version of the Quran which had been compiled by Ali, but which has since been lost.[90]
^Drissner, Gerald (2016).Islam for Nerds – 500 Questions and Answers. createspace. p. 432.ISBN978-1530860180.
^War and Peace in the Law of Islam byMajid Khadduri, translated by Muhammad Yaqub Khan Published 1951 Ahmadiyyah Anjuman Ishaat Islam, original from theUniversity of Michigan, digitised 23 October 2006
^Al-Zarkali,Al-A'lam, Dar al-Ilm lil Malayeen, 15th edition, May 2002
^Masud-ul-Hasan.Sidiq-i-Akbar Hazrat Abu Bakr.Ferozsons. p. 2.
^The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions (1894) byStanley Lane-Poole, published by Adamant Media CorporationISBN978-1-4021-6666-2
^Muslim persecution of heretics during the marwanid period (64-132/684-750), Judd Steven,Al-Masq: Islam & the Medieval Mediterranean, April 2011, Vol. 23, Issue 1, pp. 1–14.
^Abu Bakr by Atta Mohy-ud-Din, published 1968 S. Chand Original from the University of Michigan, digitised 6 January 2006,ASIN B0006FFA0O.
^HazratAbu Bakr, the First Caliph of Islam by Muhammad Habibur Rahman Khan Sherwani, published 1963, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, original from theUniversity of Michigan, digitised 14 November 2006.
^Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1935).The Life of Muhammad.As the days went by, the Prophet sent Abu Bakr with a contingent and a flag to the fortress of Na'im; but he was not able to conquer it despite heavy fighting. The Prophet then sent Umar bin al-Khattab on the following day, but he fared no better than Abu Bakr.
^Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher.A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. pp. 192–193.Some other captains also tried to capture the fortress but they also failed.
^Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher.A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. p. 193.
^Sahih-al-Bhukari book of Maghazi, Ghazwa Saif-al-Jara
^Album, Stephen; Bates, Michael L.;Floor, Willem (30 December 2012) [15 December 1992]."COINS AND COINAGE".Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. VI/1.New York:Columbia University. pp. 14–41.doi:10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783.ISSN2330-4804.Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved23 May 2022.As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used thedrahms of the Sasanian emperors, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions likebesmellāh in the margins. [...] In the year 79/698 reformed Islamic dirhams with inscriptions and no images replaced the Sasanian types at nearly all mints. During this transitional period in the 690s specifically Muslim inscriptions appeared on the coins for the first time; previously Allāh (God) had been mentioned but not the prophet Moḥammad, and there had been no reference to any Islamic doctrines. Owing to civil unrest (e.g., the revolt of ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Ašʿaṯ, q.v., against Ḥajjāj in 81/701), coins of Sasanian type continued to be issued at certain mints in Fārs, Kermān, and Sīstān, but by 84/703 these mints had either been closed down or converted to production of the new dirhams. The latest known Arab-Sasanian coin, an extraordinary issue, is dated 85/704-05, though some mints in the east, still outside Muslim control, continued producing imitation Arab-Sasanian types for perhaps another century.
^al-islam.org,Fatima the Gracious, by Abu – Muhammad Ordoni, 1987, Section entitledAbu Bakr Versus Fatima az-Zahra (sa). See alsoSahih Al Bukhari Volume 5, Book 57, Number 60, which says: "Fatima sent somebody to Abu Bakr asking him to give her her inheritance from the Prophet from what Allah had given to His Apostle through Fai (i.e. booty gained without fighting). She asked for the Sadaqa (i.e. wealth assigned for charitable purposes) of the Prophet at Medina, and Fadak, and what remained of the Khumus (i.e., one-fifth) of the Khaibar booty". Abu Bakr said, "Allah's Apostle said, "We (Prophets), our property is not inherited, and whatever we leave is Sadaqa, but Muhammad's Family can eat from this property, i.e. Allah's property, but they have no right to take more than the food they need". By Allah! I will not bring any change in dealing with the Sadaqa of the Prophet (and will keep them) as they used to be observed in his (i.e. the Prophet's) life-time, and I will dispose with it as Allah's Apostle used to do". Then Ali said, "I testify that None has the right to be worshipped but Allah, and that Muhammad is His Apostle", and added, "O Abu Bakr! We acknowledge your superiority". Then he (i.e. Ali) mentioned their own relationship to Allah's Apostle and their right. Abu Bakr then spoke saying, "By Allah in Whose Hands my life is. I love to do good to the relatives of Allah's Apostle rather than to my own relatives". Abu Bakr added: Look at Muhammad through his family". See alsoSahih Al Bukhari Volume 8, Book 80, Number 722, which says: Aisha said, "When Allah's Apostle died, his wives intended to send Uthman to Abu Bakr asking him for their share of the inheritance". Then Aisha said to them, "Didn't Allah's Apostle say, Our (Apostles') property is not to be inherited, and whatever we leave is to be spent in charity?"
^Razwy, Ali Asgher.A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. pp. 34–35.
^"Mapping the Global Muslim Population - A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population", Pew Research Center, 7 October 2009, retrieved 25 August 2010.
^Akbar Shah Najeebabadi, The history of Islam, B0006RTNB4.
^The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, p. 37–38
^The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p. 243, "They were called Rafida by the followers of Zayd"
^Aga Khan III (1998).Selected Speeches and Writings of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah. Kegan Paul. p. 1417.ISBN0710304277.
Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (2014).Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture - An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN9781610691789.
Walker, Adam, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, inMuhammad in History, Thought, and Culture - An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara,ABC-Clio, 2014.
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