Abstract expressionism was seen as rebellious and idiosyncratic, encompassing various artistic styles. It was the first specifically American movement to achieve international influence and putNew York City at the center of the Westernart world, a role formerly filled byParis. Contemporary art critics played a significant role in its development. Critics likeClement Greenberg andHarold Rosenberg promoted the work of artists associated with abstract expressionism, in particular Jackson Pollock, through their writing and collecting. Rosenberg's concept of the canvas as an "arena in which to act" was pivotal in defining the approach ofaction painters. The cultural reign of abstract expressionism in the United States had diminished by the early 1960s, while the subsequent rejection of the abstract expressionist emphasis on individualism led to the development of such movements asPop art andMinimalism.[3] Throughout the second half of the 20th century, the influence of abstract expressionism can be seen in diverse movements in the U.S. and Europe, includingTachisme andNeo-expressionism, among others.
The term "abstract expressionism" is believed to have first been used in Germany in 1919 in the magazineDer Sturm in reference to German Expressionism.Alfred Barr used this term in 1929 to describe works byWassily Kandinsky.[4] The term was used in the United States in 1946 byRobert Coates in his review of 18Hans Hofmann paintings.[5][6]
An important predecessor isSurrealism, with its emphasis on spontaneous,automatic, or subconscious creation.Jackson Pollock's dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work ofAndré Masson,Max Ernst, andDavid Alfaro Siqueiros. The newer research tends to put the exile-surrealistWolfgang Paalen in the position of the artist and theoretician who fostered the theory of the viewer-dependent possibility space through his paintings and his magazineDYN. Paalen considered ideas ofquantum mechanics, as well as idiosyncratic interpretations of the totemic vision and the spatial structure of native-Indian painting fromBritish Columbia and prepared the ground for the new spatial vision of the young American abstracts. His long essayTotem Art (1943) had considerable influence on such artists asMartha Graham,Isamu Noguchi,Pollock,Mark Rothko andBarnett Newman.[7] Around 1944 Barnett Newman tried to explain America's newest art movement and included a list of "the men in the new movement". Paalen is mentioned twice; other artists mentioned are Gottlieb, Rothko, Pollock, Hofmann, Baziotes,Gorky and others.Robert Motherwell is mentioned with a question mark.[8] Another important early manifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of American Northwest artistMark Tobey, especially his "white writing" canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the"all-over" look of Pollock's drip paintings.
The movement's name is derived from the combination of the emotional intensity andself-denial of the GermanExpressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such asFuturism, theBauhaus, and SyntheticCubism. Additionally, it has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, nihilistic.[9] In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even to work that is neither especially abstract nor expressionist. California abstract expressionistJay Meuser, who typically painted in the non-objective style, wrote about his paintingMare Nostrum, "It is far better to capture the glorious spirit of the sea than to paint all of its tiny ripples." Pollock's energetic "action paintings", with their "busy" feel, are different, both technically and aesthetically, from the violent and grotesqueWomen series ofWillem de Kooning'sfigurative paintings and the rectangles of color in Rothko'sColor Field paintings (which are not what would usually be called expressionist, and which Rothko denied were abstract). Yet all four artists are classified as abstract expressionists.
Abstract expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early 20th century such asWassily Kandinsky. Although it is true that spontaneity or the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists' works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. With artists such asPaul Klee, Kandinsky,Emma Kunz, and later on Rothko, Newman, andAgnes Martin, abstract art clearly implied expression of ideas concerning the spiritual, the unconscious, and the mind.[10]
Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate. Americansocial realism had been the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been influenced not only by theGreat Depression, but also by theMexican muralists such asDavid Alfaro Siqueiros andDiego Rivera. The political climate after World War II did not long tolerate the social protests of these painters. Abstract expressionism arose during the war and began to be showcased during the early forties at galleries in New York such asThe Art of This Century Gallery. The post-warMcCarthy era was a time of artisticcensorship in the United States, but if the subject matter were totallyabstract then it would be seen as apolitical, and therefore safe. Or if the art was political, the message was largely for the insiders.[11]
Although the abstract expressionist school spread quickly throughout the United States, the epicenters of this style were New York City and theSan Francisco Bay area ofCalifornia.
At a certain moment the canvas began to appear to one American painter after another as an arena in which to act. What was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event.
In the 1940s there were not only few galleries (The Art of This Century,Pierre Matisse Gallery,Julien Levy Gallery and a few others) but also few critics who were willing to follow the work of the New York Vanguard.There were also a few artists with a literary background, among them Robert Motherwell andBarnett Newman, who functioned as critics as well.
Barnett Newman,Onement 1, 1948. During the 1940s Barnett Newman wrote several articles about the new American painting.
Barnett Newman, a late member of theUptown Group, wrote catalogue forewords and reviews, and by the late 1940s became an exhibiting artist atBetty Parsons Gallery. His first solo show was in 1948. Soon after his first exhibition, Barnett Newman remarked in one of the Artists' Sessions at Studio 35: "We are in the process of making the world, to a certain extent, in our own image."[17] Utilizing his writing skills, Newman fought every step of the way to reinforce his newly established image as an artist and to promote his work. An example is his letter on April 9, 1955, "Letter toSidney Janis: — it is true that Rothko talks the fighter. He fights, however, to submit to the philistine world. My struggle against bourgeois society has involved the total rejection of it."[18]
Strangely, the person thought to have had most to do with the promotion of this style was a New York Trotskyist: Clement Greenberg. As long-time art critic for thePartisan Review andThe Nation, he became an early and literate proponent of abstract expressionism. The well-heeled artist Robert Motherwell joined Greenberg in promoting a style that fit the political climate and the intellectual rebelliousness of the era.
Greenberg proclaimed abstract expressionism and Pollock in particular as the epitome of aesthetic value. He supported Pollock's work on formalistic grounds as simply the best painting of its day and the culmination of an art tradition going back viaCubism andCézanne toMonet, in which painting became ever-'purer' and more concentrated in what was 'essential' to it, the making of marks on a flat surface.[19]
Pollock's work has always polarised critics. Rosenberg spoke of the transformation of painting into an existential drama in Pollock's work, in which "what was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event". "The big moment came when it was decided to paint 'just to paint'. The gesture on the canvas was a gesture of liberation from value—political, aesthetic, moral."[20]
One of the most vocal critics of abstract expressionism at the time wasThe New York Times art criticJohn Canaday.Meyer Schapiro andLeo Steinberg along with Greenberg and Rosenberg were important art historians of the post-war era who voiced support for abstract expressionism. During the early-to-mid-sixties younger art criticsMichael Fried,Rosalind Krauss, andRobert Hughes added considerable insights into the critical dialectic that continues to grow around abstract expressionism.
The post-war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval, with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris, formerly the center of European culture and capital of the art world, the climate for art was a disaster, and New York replaced Paris as the new center of the art world. Post-war Europe saw the continuation ofSurrealism,Cubism,Dada, and the works of Matisse. Also in Europe,Art brut,[21] andLyrical Abstraction orTachisme (the European equivalent to abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation.Serge Poliakoff,Nicolas de Staël,Georges Mathieu,Vieira da Silva,Jean Dubuffet,Yves Klein,Pierre Soulages andJean Messagier, among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting.[22] In the United States, a new generation of American artists began to emerge and to dominate the world stage, and they were calledabstract expressionists.
Arshile Gorky,The Liver is the Cock's Comb (1944), oil on canvas, 731⁄4 × 98" (186 × 249 cm)Albright–Knox Art Gallery,Buffalo, New York. Gorky was anArmenian-born American painter who had a seminal influence on abstract expressionism. De Kooning said: "I met a lot of artists — but then I met Gorky... He had an extraordinary gift for hitting the nail on the head; remarkable. So I immediately attached myself to him and we became very good friends."[23]
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Matisse, Picasso, Surrealism,Miró,Cubism,Fauvism, and early Modernism via eminent educators in the United States, including Hans Hofmann from Germany and John D. Graham from Ukraine. Graham's influence on American art during the early 1940s was particularly visible in the work of Gorky, de Kooning, Pollock, andRichard Pousette-Dart among others. Gorky's contributions to American and world art are difficult to overestimate. His work aslyrical abstraction[24][25][26][27][28] was a "new language.[24] He "lit the way for two generations of American artists".[24] The painterly spontaneity of mature works such asThe Liver is the Cock's Comb,The Betrothal II, andOne Year the Milkweed immediately prefigured Abstract expressionism, and leaders in theNew York School have acknowledged Gorky's considerable influence. The early work ofHyman Bloom was also influential.[29] American artists also benefited from the presence ofPiet Mondrian,Fernand Léger, Max Ernst, and theAndré Breton group,Pierre Matisse's gallery, andPeggy Guggenheim's galleryThe Art of This Century, as well as other factors. Hans Hofmann in particular as teacher, mentor, and artist was both important and influential to the development and success of abstract expressionism in the United States. Among Hofmann's protégés wasClement Greenberg, who became an enormously influential voice for American painting, and among his students wasLee Krasner, who introduced her teacher, Hofmann, to her husband, Jackson Pollock.[30]
During the late 1940s, Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for allContemporary art that followed him. To some extent, Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. LikePicasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century viaCubism and constructed sculpture, with influences as disparate asNavajosand paintings, surrealism, Jungian analysis, and Mexican mural art,[31] Pollock redefined what it was to produce art. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all that came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—the placing of unstretched rawcanvas on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artist materials and industrial materials; linear skeins of paint dripped and thrown; drawing, staining, brushing; imagery and non-imagery—essentially took art-making beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism in general expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities that artists had available for the creation of new works of art.
Action painting was a style widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, and is closely associated with abstract expressionism (some critics have used the termsaction painting and abstract expressionism interchangeably). A comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the Frenchtachisme.
The term was coined by the American criticHarold Rosenberg in 1952[39] and signaled a major shift in the aesthetic perspective ofNew York School painters and critics. According to Rosenberg the canvas was "an arena in which to act". While abstract expressionists such asJackson Pollock,Franz Kline andWillem de Kooning had long been outspoken in their view of a painting as an arena within which to come to terms with the act of creation, earlier critics sympathetic to their cause, likeClement Greenberg, focused on their works' "objectness". To Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings' clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them as documents of the artists'existential struggle.
Rosenberg's critique shifted the emphasis from the object to the struggle itself, with the finished painting being only the physical manifestation, a kind of residue, of the actual work of art, which was in the act or process of the painting's creation. This spontaneous activity was the "action" of the painter, through arm and wrist movement,painterly gestures, brushstrokes, thrown paint, splashed, stained, scumbled and dripped. The painter would sometimes let the paint drip onto the canvas, while rhythmically dancing, or even standing in the canvas, sometimes letting the paint fall according to the subconscious mind, thus letting theunconscious part of thepsyche assert and express itself. All this, however, is difficult to explain or interpret because it is a supposed unconscious manifestation of the act of pure creation.[40]
In practice, the term abstract expressionism is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock's energeticaction paintings, with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to De Kooning's violent and grotesqueWomen series.Woman V is one of a series of six paintings made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three-quarter-length female figure. He began the first of these paintings,Woman I, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished. The art historianMeyer Schapiro saw the painting in de Kooning's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist to persist. De Kooning's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme;Woman II,Woman III andWoman IV. During the summer of 1952, spent atEast Hampton, de Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels. He may have finished work onWoman I by the end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at much the same time.[41] TheWoman series are decidedlyfigurative paintings.
Another important artist isFranz Kline.[42][43] As with Jackson Pollock and other abstract expressionists, Kline was labelled an "action painter" because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brushstrokes and use of canvas; as demonstrated by his paintingNumber 2 (1954).[44][45][46]
Automatic writing was an important vehicle for action painters such as Kline (in his black and white paintings), Pollock, Mark Tobey andCy Twombly, who used gesture, surface, and line to create calligraphic, linear symbols and skeins that resemble language, and resonate as powerful manifestations from theCollective unconscious.[47][48]Robert Motherwell in hisElegy to the Spanish Republic series painted powerful black and white paintings using gesture, surface and symbol evoking powerful emotional charges.[49][50]
Meanwhile, other action painters, notably de Kooning, Gorky,Norman Bluhm,Joan Mitchell, andJames Brooks, used imagery via either abstract landscape or as expressionistic visions of the figure to articulate their highly personal and powerful evocations. James Brooks' paintings were particularly poetic and highly prescient in relationship toLyrical Abstraction that became prominent in the late 1960s and the 1970s.[51]
Clyfford Still,Barnett Newman,Adolph Gottlieb and the serenely shimmering blocks of color inMark Rothko's work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit from whatClement Greenberg termed theColor field direction of abstract expressionism. Both Hans Hofmann andRobert Motherwell can be comfortably described as practitioners ofAction painting and Color field painting. In the 1940sRichard Pousette-Dart's tightly constructed imagery often depended upon themes of mythology and mysticism; as did the paintings of Gottlieb, and Pollock in that decade as well.
Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of abstract expressionism, especially the work of Rothko, Still, Newman, Motherwell, Gottlieb,Ad Reinhardt and several series of paintings byJoan Miró. Greenberg perceived Color Field painting as related to but different from Action painting. The Color Field painters sought to rid their art of superfluous rhetoric. Artists like Motherwell, Still, Rothko, Gottlieb,Hans Hofmann,Helen Frankenthaler,Sam Francis,Mark Tobey, and especially Ad Reinhardt and Barnett Newman, whose masterpieceVir heroicus sublimis is in the collection ofMoMA, used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general, these artists eliminated recognizable imagery, in the case of Rothko and Gottlieb sometimes using symbols and signs as a replacement of imagery.[52] Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing this direction ofmodern art, artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image.
In distinction to the emotional energy and gestural surface marks of abstract expressionists such as Pollock and de Kooning, the Color Field painters initially appeared to be cool and austere, effacing the individual mark in favor of large, flat areas of color, which these artists considered to be the essential nature of visual abstraction, along with the actual shape of the canvas, which later in the 1960sFrank Stella in particular achieved in unusual ways with combinations of curved and straight edges. However, Color Field painting has proven to be both sensual and deeply expressive albeit in a different way from gestural abstract expressionism.
Although abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in theNew York School, and theSan Francisco Bay area. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "all-over" approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges). The canvas as thearena became a credo of Action painting, while theintegrity of the picture plane became a credo of the Color field painters. Younger artists began exhibiting their abstract expressionist related paintings during the 1950s as well includingAlfred Leslie,Sam Francis,Joan Mitchell,Helen Frankenthaler,Cy Twombly,Milton Resnick,Michael Goldberg,Norman Bluhm,Grace Hartigan,Friedel Dzubas, andRobert Goodnough among others.
Although Pollock is closely associated with Action Painting because of his style, technique, and his painterlytouch and his physical application of paint, art critics have likened Pollock to both Action painting and color field painting. Another critical view advanced by Greenberg connects Pollock's allover canvasses to the large-scaleWater Lilies ofClaude Monet done during the 1920s. Art critics such asMichael Fried, Greenberg and others have observed that the overall feeling in Pollock's most famous works – hisdrip paintings – read as vast fields of built-up linear elements. They note that these works often read as vast complexes of similarly-valued paint skeins and all-over fields of color and drawing, and are related to the mural-sized Monets which are similarly constructed of close-valued brushed and scumbled marks that also read as fields of color and drawing. Pollock's use of all-over composition lend a philosophical and a physical connection to the way the color field painters like Newman, Rothko and Still construct their unbroken and in Still's case broken surfaces. In several paintings that Pollock painted after his classicdrip painting period of 1947–1950, he used the technique of staining fluid oil paint and house paint into raw canvas. During 1951 he produced a series of semi-figurative black stain paintings, and in 1952 he produced stain paintings using color. In his November 1952 exhibition at theSidney Janis Gallery in New York City Pollock showedNumber 12, 1952, a large, masterful stain painting that resembles a brightly colored stained landscape (with an overlay of broadly dripped dark paint); the painting was acquired from the exhibition byNelson Rockefeller for his personal collection.[53]
WhileArshile Gorky is considered to be one of the founding fathers of abstract expressionism and asurrealist, he was also one of the first painters of theNew York School who used the technique ofstaining. Gorky created broad fields of vivid, open, unbroken color that he used in many of his paintings asgrounds. In Gorky's most effective and accomplished paintings between the years 1941–1948, he consistently used intense stained fields of color, often letting the paint run and drip, under and around his familiar lexicon of organic and biomorphic shapes and delicate lines. Another abstract expressionist whose works in the 1940s call to mind the stain paintings of the 1960s and the 1970s isJames Brooks. Brooks regularly used stain as a technique in his paintings from the late 1940s. Brooks began diluting hisoil paint in order to have fluid colors with which to pour and drip and stain into the mostly raw canvas that he used. These works often combinedcalligraphy and abstract shapes. During the final three decades of his career,Sam Francis' style of large-scale bright abstract expressionism was closely associated with Color field painting. His paintings straddled both camps within the abstract expressionist rubric, Action painting and Color Field painting.
Having seen Pollock's 1951 paintings of thinned black oil paint stained into raw canvas, Frankenthaler began to producestain paintings in varied oil colors on raw canvas in 1952. Her most famous painting from that period isMountains and Sea. She is one of the originators of the Color Field movement that emerged in the late 1950s.[54] Frankenthaler also studied withHans Hofmann.
Hofmann's paintings are a symphony of color as seen inThe Gate, 1959–1960. He was renowned not only as an artist but also as a teacher of art, both in his native Germany and later in the US. Hofmann, who came to the United States from Germany in the early 1930s, brought with him the legacy ofModernism. As a young artist in pre-First World War Paris, Hofmann worked withRobert Delaunay, and he knew firsthand the innovative work of both Picasso and Matisse. Matisse's work had an enormous influence on him, and on his understanding of the expressive language of color and the potentiality of abstraction. Hofmann was one of the first theorists of color field painting, and his theories were influential to artists and to critics, particularly to Clement Greenberg, as well as to others during the 1930s and 1940s. In 1953Morris Louis andKenneth Noland were both profoundly influenced byHelen Frankenthaler's stain paintings after visiting her studio in New York City. Returning to Washington, DC., they began to produce the major works that created thecolor field movement in the late 1950s.[55]
Clement Greenberg included the work of both Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland in a show that he did at the Kootz Gallery in the early 1950s. Clem was the first to see their potential. He invited them up to New York in 1953, I think it was, to Helen's studio to see a painting that she had just done called Mountains and Sea, a very, very beautiful painting, which was in a sense, out of Pollock and out of Gorky. It also was one of the first stain pictures, one of the first large field pictures in which the stain technique was used, perhaps the first one. Louis and Noland saw the picture unrolled on the floor of her studio and went back to Washington, DC., and worked together for a while, working at the implications of this kind of painting.[56][57]
Inabstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s, several new directions, like theHard-edge painting exemplified byJohn McLaughlin, emerged. Meanwhile, as a reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism, other forms ofGeometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radicalavant-garde circles. Greenberg became the voice ofPost-painterly abstraction; by curating an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964.Color field painting,Hard-edge painting andLyrical Abstraction[58] emerged as radical new directions.
Since the mid-1970s it has been argued that the style attracted the attention, in the early 1950s, of theCIA, who saw it as representative of the US as a haven of free thought and free markets, as well as a challenge to both thesocialist realist styles prevalent incommunist nations and the dominance of the European art markets.[59] The book byFrances Stonor Saunders,[citation needed]The Cultural Cold War—The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters,[60] (published in the UK asWho Paid the Piper?: CIA and the Cultural Cold War) details how the CIA financed and organized the promotion of American abstract expressionists as part ofcultural imperialism via theCongress for Cultural Freedom from 1950 to 1967. Notably Robert Motherwell's seriesElegy to the Spanish Republic addressed some of those political issues.Tom Braden, founding chief of the CIA'sInternational Organizations Division (IOD) and ex-executive secretary of theMuseum of Modern Art said in an interview, "I think it was the most important division that the agency had, and I think that it played an enormous role in the Cold War."[61]
Against this revisionist tradition, an essay byMichael Kimmelman, chief art critic ofThe New York Times, calledRevisiting the Revisionists: The Modern, Its Critics and the Cold War, asserts that much of that information concerning what was happening on the American art scene during the 1940s and 50s, as well as the revisionists' interpretation of it, is false or decontextualized.[62] Other books on the subject includeArt in the Cold War, by Christine Lindey, which also describes the art of the Soviet Union at the same time, andPollock and After, edited by Francis Frascina, which reprinted the Kimmelman article.
However, many painters, such asJules Olitski,Joan Mitchell andAntoni Tàpies continued to work in the abstract expressionist style for many years, extending and expanding its visual and philosophical implications, as many abstract artists continue to do today, in styles described aslyrical abstraction,neo-expressionist and others.
In the years after World War II, a group of New York artists started one of the first true schools of artists in America, bringing about a new era in American artwork: abstract expressionism. This led to the American art boom that brought about styles such asPop Art. This also helped to makeNew York into a cultural and artistic hub.[63]
Abstract Expressionists value the organism over the static whole, becoming over being, expression over perfection, vitality over finish, fluctuation over repose, feeling over formulation, the unknown over the known, the veiled over the clear, the individual over society and the inner over the outer.[64]
— William C. Seitz, American artist and Art historian
^The work of Mexican muralists would also influence the work of Jackson Pollock, a leading representative of the New York School and Abstract Expressionism.
^Coates, Robert (30 Mar 1946)."The Art Galleries".The New Yorker:83–84....[Hans Hofmann] is certainly one of the most uncompromising representatives of what some people call the spatter-and-daub school of painting and I, more politely, have christened abstract Expressionism.
^Shapiro, David/Cecile (2000), "Abstract Expressionism: The politics of apolitical painting." pp. 189–190 In: Frascina, Francis (2000–1):Pollock and After: The Critical Debate. 2nd ed. London: Routledge
^Catherine de Zegher and Hendel Teicher (eds.).3 X Abstraction. NY: The Drawing Center and /New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.
^Serge Guilbaut.How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art, University of Chicago Press, 1983.
^Abstract Expressionism, by Barbara Hess, Taschen, 2005, back cover
^Thomas B. Hess, "Willem de Kooning", George Braziller, Inc. New York, 1959 p.13
^Tomkins, Calvin.Off the Wall: A Portrait of Robert Rauschenberg [Deckle Edge] [Paperback], p. 5. Publisher: Picador; Revised and Updated edition (November 29, 2005)ISBN0-312-42585-6
^Barnett Newman Selected Writings and Interviews, (ed.) by John P. O'Neill, pp. 240–241,University of California Press, 1990
^Barnett Newman Selected Writings Interviews, p. 201.
^Clement Greenberg, "Art and Culture Critical essays", ("The Crisis of the Easel Picture"), Beacon Press, 1961 pp.: 154–57
^Harold Rosenberg,The Tradition of the New, Chapter 2, "The American Action Painter", pp.23–39
^Jean Dubuffet:L’Art brut préféré aux arts culturels [1949](=engl in:Art brut. Madness and Marginalia, special issue ofArt & Text, No. 27, 1987, p. 31–33)
^Chaet, Bernard (1980). "The Boston Expressionist School: A Painter's Recollections of the Forties".Archives of American Art Journal.20 (1). The Smithsonian Institution: 28.doi:10.1086/aaa.20.1.1557495.JSTOR1557495.S2CID192821072.[Thomas] Hess's favorite painter, Willem de Kooning...made it very clear to me in a conversation in 1954 that he and Jackson Pollock considered Bloom, whom they had discovered inAmericans 1942, 'the first Abstract Expressionist artist in America.'"
^Helen Harrison (2002-12-08). "Arts & Entertainment: Art Reviews; Landscapes of Fantasy, and a Devotion to Color 'Three East End Artists'".The New York Times. New York, New York. p. LI21.This body of her work has not been seen in depth for many years, and it confirms her status as a New York School abstractionist of the first rank. Seldom does a painter have such control over intense color – for example ion 'No.6 (Montauk),' in which the sharpness of complementary contrasts is subtly muted and harmonized. Complex interactive layering animates the painted surfaces, which often conceal as much as they reveal. Organic and calligraphic shapes jockey for position, yet are held firmly in place by implicit structure. These are not mere virtuoso formal exercises, however; their emotional undercurrents are as strong as their technical qualities.
