"Abomination of desolation"[a] is a phrase fromDaniel's final vision in theHebrew Bible (Daniel 11:31), which was later identified with the pagan sacrifices with which the 2nd century BCSeleucid EmperorAntiochus IV Epiphanes replaced the twice-dailyqorban in theSecond Temple, or thealtar of sacrifice on which such offerings were made.[1]
In the1st century, it was taken up by the authors of thegospels in the context ofthe Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in the year 70,[2] with theGospel of Mark placing the "abomination of desolation" into a speech byJesus concerning theSecond Coming.[3] It is widely accepted that Mark was the primary source used by the authors of theGospel of Matthew and ofLuke for their parallel passages,[4] with Matthew 24:15–16[5] adding a reference to Daniel[6] andLuke 21:20–21 describing the Roman armies ("But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies..."); in all three the authors likely had in mind a futureeschatological (i.e., end-time) event, and perhaps the activities of someantichrist.[7]
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Chapters 1–6 of theBook of Daniel originated as a collection oforal literature fromHellenistic Palestine in the late 4th to early 3rd centuries BCE.[8] At that time, a lamb was sacrificed twice daily, in the morning and the evening, on the altar of theTemple in Jerusalem. In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, theSeleucid emperor, who then ruled Palestine, ended the practice.[9][10] In reaction to this, thevisionary chapters of Daniel, chapters 7–12, were added to reassure Jews that they would survive in the face of this threat.[11] InDaniel 8, one angel asks another how long "the transgression that makes desolate" will last. TheProphecy of Seventy Weeks (Daniel 9) tells of "the prince who is to come" who "shall make sacrifice and offering cease, and in their place shall be an abomination that desolates."Daniel's final vision appears in Daniel 11, where it tells the history of the arrogant foreign king who sets up the "abomination that makes desolate,"; and in Daniel 12, where the prophet is told how many days will pass "from the time that the regular burnt offering is taken away and the abomination that desolates is set up."[12]
One of the more popular older views was to see in the "abomination" a contemptuous deformation (ordysphemism) of theCanaanite deityBaalshamin "Lord of Heaven";[13]Philo of Byblosidentified Baalshamin with Zeus,[13] and as the Temple was rededicated in honour of Zeus according to2 Maccabees 6:2, older commentators tended to followPorphyry of Tyre in seeing the "abomination" in terms of a statue of Zeus.[14] More recently, it has been suggested that the reference is tobaetyls, possiblyof meteoric origin, that were fixed to the altar of sacrifice for worship,[15][16] since the use of such stones is well-attested in Canaanite and Syrian cults.[17] Both proposals have been criticized on the basis that they are too speculative, dependent on flawed analysis, or not well-suited to the relevant context in the Book of Daniel;[17][18] and more recent scholarship tends to see the "abomination" as a reference to either the pagan offerings that replaced the forbidden twice-daily Jewish offering (cf. Daniel 11:31, 12:11;2 Maccabees 6:5),[19][20] or the pagan altar on which such offerings were made.[21][17]
In 63 BCE, theRoman Republiccaptured Jerusalem, Judea became a client state of Rome for the remainder of Hasmonean and laterHerodian rule, and eventually became aprovince of the Roman Empire. In 66 CE, the Jews rose in revolt in theFirst Jewish–Roman War.[22] The war ended in 70 CE when the legions of the Roman generalTitus surrounded and eventually captured Jerusalem;[23] the city and the Temple were razed to the ground, and the only habitation on the site until the first third of the next century was acastrum.[24] It was against this background that thegospels were written; theGospel of Mark around 70 andMatthew andLuke around 80–85.[25][26] The secular scholars believe that none of the authors were eyewitnesses to the life ofJesus,[27] and that Mark was the source used by the authors of Matthew and Luke for their "abomination of desolation" passages.[28]
Chapter 13 of the Gospel of Mark is a speech of Jesus concerning the return of theson of man and the advent of theKingdom of God, which will be signalled by the appearance of the "abomination of desolation".[3] It begins with Jesus in the temple informing his disciples that "not one stone here will be left on another, all will be thrown down"; the disciples ask when this will happen, and inMark 13:15, Jesus tells them: "[W]hen you see the abomination of desolation standing where he ought not to be (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains" Mark's terminology is drawn from Daniel, but the author places the fulfilment of the prophecy in the coming days,[29] underlining this inMark 13:30 by stating that "this generation will not pass away before all these things take place."[30] While Daniel's "abomination" was probably a pagan altar or sacrifice, Mark uses a masculine participle for "standing", indicating a concrete historical person: several candidates have been suggested, but the most likely is Titus.[31][32][b]
The majority of scholars believe that Mark was the source used by the authors of Matthew and Luke for their "abomination of desolation" passages.[28] Matthew 24:15–16[33] follows Mark 13:14 closely: "So when you see the abomination of desolation spoken of by the prophet Daniel, standing in the holy place (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains"; but unlike Mark, Matthew uses a neutral participle instead of a masculine one, and explicitly identifies Daniel as the text's prophetic source.[6] Luke 21:20–21 drops the "abomination" entirely: "But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near. Then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains, and let those who are inside the city depart, and let not those who are out in the country enter it."[34] In all three, the authors likely had in mind a futureeschatological (i.e., end-time) event, and perhaps the activities of someantichrist.[34]
It is an expression found inMatthew 24:15 andMark 13:14 that refers to anabominable stele ofDaniel 8:13,Daniel 9:27,Daniel 11:31 andDaniel 12:11 (seeProphecy of Seventy Weeks).
This expression refers to the transgression of the Law of Moses by the Jews when they were being taken captive to Babylon.[35] The graven image mentioned in the Old Testament is called astele by ancient peoples, such as the Egyptians, and were usually funerary tablets that pagan peoples made for their gods.[36]
God's people were serving stelae (graven images)[37] and serving other pagan gods such as thequeen of heaven in the Babylonian captivity.[38] Both the prophets Daniel and Jesus warned the Israelites of their turning away from God and of theEnd Times, as in theProphecy of Seventy Weeks, which is prophesied by the angelGabriel of the coming of theAnti-Messiah, who after the 62 weeks would come to ravage humanity.[39] There is also a meaning in esotericoccult circles, that the stele of Revelation,[40][41] also known as thestele of Ankh-af-na-Khonsu, would be filled with prophecies of the Anti-Messiah, according to interpretations of the religion developed byAleister Crowley, calledThelema.[42]
According to the Bible in II Kings 23:13 and I Kings 11:5 one can find a close link between the concepts of idolatry and abomination.
In the circles of direct influence of theBook of Daniel, which are the same circles that gave rise to apocalyptic literature, the expression was used to designate an importanteschatological conception. It is only in an eschatological sense that the expression can be adequately explained in theNew Testament passages mentioned above.
According to most modern commentators, these passages[43] are a “Jewish apocalypse”, which was reinterpreted byChristianity as a prophecy about the end times, when the Antichrist (abomination of desolation),[44] will come to ravage the Earth and its inhabitants.[45]
On the other hand, W. C. Allen maintains that the evangelists were referring toCaligula's desire to build a statue of himself in the Temple of Jerusalem.[46]
