| Abbasid dynasty العباسيون | |
|---|---|
| Parent family | Banu Hashim |
| Country | Abbasid Caliphate |
| Founded | 750 (inBaghdad) 1261 (inCairo) |
| Final ruler | Al-Mutawakkil III |
| Historic seat | |
| Titles | |
| Dissolution | 1258 (in Baghdad) 1517 (in Cairo) |
TheAbbasid dynasty, orAbbasids, (Arabic:بنو العباس,romanized: Banu al-ʿAbbās) was anArab dynasty that ruled thethird Islamic caliphate between 750 and 1258. They were from theQurayshiHashimid clan of Banu Abbas, descended fromAbbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. TheAbbasid Caliphate is divided into three main periods: Early Abbasid era (750–861), Middle Abbasid era (861–936) and Later Abbasid era (936–1258). A cadet branch of the dynasty also ruled as ceremonial rulers for theMamluk Sultanate (1261–1517) until their conquest by theOttoman Empire.
The Abbasids descended fromMuhammad's uncleAbbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), an earlyQur'an scholar from whom the dynasty takes its name.[1][2] Their roots trace back toHashim ibn 'Abd Manaf andAdnan.[3]
The Abbasid dynasty ruled the thirdcaliphate to succeed theIslamic prophetMuhammad. The Abbasids ruled for most of the caliphate from their capital inBaghdad,Iraq after having overthrown theUmayyad Caliphate in theAbbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH). The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government inKufa, Iraq, but in 762 the caliphAl-Mansur founded the city ofBaghdad near the ancient city ofBabylon over the ruins of the ancientSassanid capital ofCtesiphon. Baghdad became the center ofscience,culture andinnovation, housing several key academic institutions like theHouse of Wisdom, in what became known as theGolden Age of Islam. This, as well as a multiethnic and multireligious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning."
The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750–800) under several competent caliphs and theirviziers to usher in the administrative changes needed to keep order of the political challenges created by the far-flung nature of the empire and limited communication across it.[4] It was during this early period, in particular during the governance of Al-Mansur,Harun al-Rashid, andal-Ma'mun, that its reputation and power were created.[2]Al-Mu'tasim moved the capital away from Baghdad to the new city ofSamarra. The Abbasid Caliphate was at its peak until the assassination of CaliphAl-Mutawakkil in 861.
Al-Mutawakkil had appointed his oldest son,al-Muntasir, as his heir in 849/50, but slowly had shifted his favour to his second son,al-Mu'tazz, encouraged byal-Fath ibn Khaqan and the vizierUbayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan. This rivalry extended into the political sphere, as al-Mu'tazz's succession appears to have been backed by the traditional Abbasid elites as well, while al-Muntasir was backed by theTurkic andMaghariba guard troops.[5][6] In late autumn 861, matters came to a head: in October, al-Mutawakkil ordered the estates of the Turkic generalWasif to be confiscated and handed over to al-Fath. Feeling backed into a corner, the Turkic leadership began a plot to assassinate the Caliph.[7][8] They were soon joined, or at least had the tacit approval, of al-Muntasir, who smarted from a succession of humiliations: on 5 December, on the recommendation of al-Fath and Ubayd Allah, he was bypassed in favour of al-Mu'tazz for leading theFriday prayer at the end ofRamadan, while three days later, when al-Mutawakkil was feeling ill and chose al-Muntasir to represent him on the prayer, once again Ubayd Allah intervened and persuaded the Caliph to go in person. Even worse, according toal-Tabari, on the next day al-Mutawakkil alternately vilified and threatened to kill his eldest son, and even had al-Fath slap him on the face. With rumours circulating that Wasif and the other Turkish leaders would be rounded up and executed on 12 December, the conspirators decided to act.[6][9]
According to al-Tabari, a story later circulated that al-Fath and Ubayd Allah were forewarned of the plot by a Turkic woman, but had disregarded it, confident that no-one would dare carry it out.[10][11] On the night of 10/11 December, about one hour after midnight, the Turks burst into the chamber where the Caliph and al-Fath were having supper. Al-Fath was killed trying to protect the Caliph, who was killed next. Al-Muntasir, who now assumed the Caliphate, initially claimed that al-Fath had murdered his father, and that he had been killed after; within a short time, however, the official story changed to al-Mutawakkil choking on his drink.[12][13] The murder of al-Mutawakkil began the tumultuous period known as "Anarchy at Samarra", which lasted until 870 and brought the Abbasid Caliphate to the brink of collapse.[14]
The decline of the Abbasids started with the death of al-Mutawakkil. After his assassination, theAnarchy at Samarra began. This was a period of extreme internal instability marked by the violent succession of four caliphs from 861 to 870.
Al-Muntasir became Caliph on 11 December 861, after his fatheral-Mutawakkil was assassinated by members of his Turkic guard.[15] Although he was suspected of being involved in the plot to kill al-Mutawakkil, he was able to quickly take control of affairs in Samarra and receive theoath of allegiance from the leading men of the state.[16] Al-Muntasir's sudden elevation to the Caliphate served to benefit several of his close associates, who gained senior positions in the government after his ascension. Included among these were his secretary,Ahmad ibn al-Khasib, who becamevizier, andWasif, a senior Turkic general who had likely been heavily involved in al-Mutawakkil's murder.[17] His reign lasted less than half a year; it ended with his death from unknown causes on Sunday, 7 June 862, at the age of 24 years. During al-Muntasir's short reign (r. 861–862), the Turks pressured him into removingal-Mu'tazz andal-Mu'ayyad from the succession. When al-Muntasir died, the Turkic officers gathered together and decided to install the dead caliph's cousinal-Musta'in (son of al-Mutawakkil's brotherMuhammad) on the throne.[18] The new caliph was almost immediately faced with a large riot in Samarra in support of the disenfranchised al-Mu'tazz; the rioters were put down by the military but casualties on both sides were heavy. Al-Musta'in, worried that al-Mu'tazz or al-Mu'ayyad could press their claims to the caliphate, first attempted to buy them off and then threw them in prison.[19] In 866 his nephew al-Musta'in was killed by al-Mu'tazz afterFifth Fitna. Al-Mu'tazz's reign marks the apogee of the decline of the Caliphate's central authority, and the climax of centrifugal tendencies, expressed through the emergence of the autonomous dynasties in Abbasid Caliphate. Finally, unable to meet the financial demands of the Turkic troops, in mid-July a palace coup deposed al-Mu'tazz. He was imprisoned and maltreated to such an extent that he died after three days, on 16 July 869.[20] He was succeeded by his cousinal-Muhtadi.[20] He ruled until 870, until he was murdered on 21 June 870, and replaced by his cousin,al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892).[21]
In a series of campaignsal-Mu'tadid recovered the provinces ofJazira,Thughur, andJibal, and effected a rapprochement with theSaffarids in the east and theTulunids in the west that secured their—albeit largely nominal—recognition of caliphal suzerainty. These successes came at the cost of gearing the economy almost exclusively towards the maintenance of the army, which resulted in the expansion and rise to power of the central fiscal bureaucracy and contributed to the Caliph's lasting reputation for avarice. Al-Mu'tadid was renowned for his cruelty when punishing criminals, and subsequent chroniclers recorded his extensive and ingenious use of torture. His reign saw the permanent move of the capital back to Baghdad, where he engaged in major building activities.
Al-Mu'tadid had taken care to prepare his son and successor,al-Muktafi, for his role by appointing him asgovernor inRayy and the Jazira.[22][23] Although al-Muktafi tried to follow his father's policies, he lacked his energy. The heavily militarized system ofal-Muwaffaq and al-Mu'tadid required the Caliph to actively participate in campaigns, setting a personal example and forming ties of loyalty, reinforced by patronage, between the ruler and the soldiers. Al-Muktafi, on the other hand, did not "in his character and comportment [...], being a sedentary figure, instil much loyalty, let alone inspiration, in the soldiers" (Michael Bonner).[24] The Caliphate was still able to secure major successes over the next few years, including the reincorporation of the Tulunid domains in 904 and victories over theQarmatians, but with al-Muktafi's death in 908, the so-called "Abbasid restoration" passed its high-water mark, and a new period of crisis began.[25][26][27]
After al-Muktafi's death,al-Muqtadir came to the throne. He came to the throne at the age of 13, the youngest Caliph in Abbasid history. Al-Muqtadir's long reign (908–932) had brought the Abbasids to their lowest ebb, in which most of Northern Africa was lost.Mosul had thrown off its dependence and theByzantine Empire could make raids at pleasure along the poorly protected borders. Yet in the East formal recognition of the Caliphate remained in place, even by those who virtually claimed their independence; and nearer home, the Qarmathians had been for the time put down.
After Al-Muqtadir's death,al-Qahir came to power in 932. He ruled for two years until he was pressured to abdicate in favour of Al-Muqtadir's nominated heiral-Radi (r. 932–940). When he refused to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.[28][29] According toal-Mas'udi, al-Radi "kept news of him hidden" so that he vanished from common knowledge.[30] He was not freed until eleven years later, whenal-Mustakfi (r. 944–946) came to the throne and discovered him locked away in a remote room in the palace.[29][30]
Al-Radi's reign marked the end of the Caliph's political power and the rise of military strongmen, who competed for the title ofAmir al-umara. Al-Radi is commonly spoken of as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, hold assemblies with philosophers to discuss the questions of the day, take counsel on the affairs of State, distribute largess among the needy, or interpose to temper the severity of cruel officers.
Al-Muttaqi and his successors were all considered aslater Abbasids.Al-Muti was a weak figure, for all intents and purposes apuppet ruler of theBuyidemir, firstMu'izz al-Dawla, and then his son,Izz al-Dawla (r. 967–978). As a result of his lack of real power, al-Muti' himself barely figures in the chronicles of his reign, and medieval historians generally considered his period as the lowest ebb of the Abbasid caliphate,[31] an opinion shared by modern scholars as well.[32] Al-Muti was succeeded by his sonal-Ta'i, who made attempts to restore his political authority until he was deposed byBaha al-Dawla. He was succeeded by his cousinal-Qadir. In his long reign, al-Qadir was successful in restoration his political authority in Baghdad and its surrounding territory. He was succeeded by his sonal-Qa'im, and it was during his reign that the Buyids were replaced by theSeljuks. The Abbasids continued their partnership with the Seljuks until the reign ofal-Muqtafi. Then Abbasid continued to rule Iraq directly without disturbance untilMongol Invasion in 1258.
TheMamluk Sultans of Egypt and Syria later appointed an Abbasid prince as Caliph ofCairo, but these Mamluk Abbasid Caliphs were marginalized and merely symbolic, with no temporal power and little religious influence. The Cairo Abbasids were largely ceremonial Caliphs under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate that existed after the takeover of theAyyubids.[33][34] Even though they kept the title for about 250 years more, other than installing the Sultan in ceremonies, these Caliphs had little importance. After theOttomans conquered Egypt in 1517, the Caliph of Cairo,al-Mutawakkil III was transported toConstantinople.
Centuries later, a tradition developed saying that, at this time, al-Mutawakkil III formally surrendered the title of caliph as well as its outward emblems—thesword and mantle ofMuhammad—to the Ottoman SultanSelim I, establishing the Ottoman sultans as the newcaliphal line. Some historians have noted that this story does not appear in the literature until the 1780s, suggesting that it was advanced to bolster the claims of caliphal jurisdiction over Muslims outside the empire, as asserted in the 1774Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca.[35]
In the centuries following the Mongol siege of Baghdad, several dynasties historically regarded as Abbasid have ruled different regions. The dynasty that ruled theWadai Empire in parts of modern-dayChad andSudan is among these.[39][verification needed] Abbasid dynasties also ruled theBahawalpur state in Pakistan, theBahdinan region in northern Iraq, and the Khanate ofBastak.[40][41]
The history of the Abbasid Khanate of Bastak relates that in 656 AH/1258 CE, the year of the fall of Baghdad, and following the sack of the city, a few surviving members of the Abbasid dynastic family led by the eldest amongst them, Ismail II son of Hamza son of Ahmed son of Mohamed, migrated to Southern Iran, where they settled in Khonj.[nb 1][43] One of Ismail II's descendants eventually settled inBastak where later the Abbasid khanate was established in the 17th century CE.[44]
Meanwhile, theWadai Empire related a similar origin, with descent from a man by the name of Salih ibn Abdullah ibn Abbas, whose father Abdullah was an Abbasid prince who fled Baghdad forHijaz upon the Mongol invasion. He had a son named Salih who would grow to become an "able jurist" and a "very devout man". The Muslimulama on pilgrimage in Mecca met him and, impressed by his knowledge, invited him to return with them toSennar. Seeing the population's deviation from Islam, he "pushed further" until he found the Abu Sinun mountain inWadai where he converted the local people to Islam and taught them its rules, after which they made himsultan, thus laying the foundations of the Wadai Empire.[45]
With regards to the Khanate of Bastak, Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki was the first Abbasid ruler of Bastak and Jahangiriyeh to hold the title of "Khan" (meaning "ruler" or "king"), which was bestowed upon him byKarim Khan Zand.[46] The title then became that of all the subsequent Abbasid rulers of Bastak and Jahangiriyeh, and also collectively refers in plural form, i.e., "Khans", to the descendants of Shaikh Mohamed Khan Bastaki. The last Abbasid ruler of Bastak and Jahangiriyeh was Mohamed A'zam Khan Baniabbassian son of Mohamed Reza Khan "Satvat al-Mamalek" Baniabbasi. He authored the bookTarikh-e Jahangiriyeh va Baniabbassian-e Bastak (1960),[47] in which is recounted the history of the region and the Abbasid family that ruled it. Mohamed A'zam Khan Baniabbassian died in 1967, regarded as the end of the Abbasid reign in Bastak.[citation needed]
The Paternal Ancestral Lineage of Prophet Muhammad
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