During this year on the Asian continent, several divisions of the oldMongol Empire were in a state of gradual decline. TheIlkhanate had already fragmented into several kingdoms struggling to place their puppet emperors over the shell of an old state. TheChagatai Khanate was in the midst of a civil war and one year from falling to rebellion. TheGolden Horde to the north was besiegingGenoese colonies along the coast of theBlack Sea, and theYuan dynasty in China was seeing the first seeds of a resistance which would lead to its downfall. Southeast Asia remained free from Mongol power, with several small kingdoms struggling for survival. The Siamese dynasty in that area vanquished theSukhothai in this year. In theIndonesian Archipelago, theMajapahit Empire was in the midst of a golden age under the leadership ofGajah Mada, who remains a famous figure inIndonesia.
Turks clashed with Byzantines, Serbs, and Cypriots at sea and in the islands ofChios andImbros. The Byzantine Empire's precarious situation at this time is evidenced by the fact that they did not have enough soldiers to protect their own borders, but hired mercenaries from the Serbs and theOttoman Turks.
March 24 –Guy de Chauliac observes the planets Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars conjoined in the sky, under the sign of Aquarius, and a solar eclipse on the same day. This sign is interpreted as foreboding by many, and Chauliac will later blame it for theBlack Plague.[1][2]
The country ofGeorgia had been struggling for independence from theIlkhanate since the first anti-Mongol uprising started in 1259 under the leadership ofKing David Narin who in fact waged his war for almost thirty years. Finally, it wasKing George the Brilliant (1314–1346) who managed to play on the decline of the Ilkhanate, stopped paying tribute to the Mongols, restored the pre-1220 state borders of Georgia, and returned theEmpire of Trebizond into Georgia's sphere of influence. Thus, in 1345, Georgia was in the midst of golden age of independence, though its leader would die one year later.
Trebizond had reached its greatest wealth and influence during the long reign ofAlexios II (1297–1330).[10] It was now in a period of repeated imperial depositions and assassinations that lasted from the end of Alexios II's reign until the first years ofAlexios III's, finally ending in 1355. The empire never fully recovered its internal cohesion, commercial supremacy or territory. Its ruler in 1345,Michael Megas Komnenos, was crowned Emperor of Trebizond in 1344 after his son,John III, was deposed. He was forced to sign a document which gave the Grand Duke and his ministers almost all power in the Empire, promising to seek their counsel in all official actions. This constitutional experiment was short-lived, however, because of opposition from the people of Trebizond, who rose up in revolt against the oligarchy. Michael swiftly took advantage of his opportunity to regain power and arrested and imprisoned the Grand Duke in 1345. He also sent his son John toConstantinople and thenAdrianople, where he was to be kept prisoner to prevent him from becoming a focus of dissent.[11]
Map showing the political situation in southwest Asia in 1345, ten years after the death of Abu Sa'id. The Jalayirids, Chobanids, Muzaffarids, Injuids, Sarbadars and Kartids took the Ilkhanate's place as the major powers in Iran.
TheIlkhanate had been declining rapidly since 1335, whenAbu Sa'id died without an heir. Since then, various factions, including theChobanids and theJalayirids, had been competing for the Ilkhan throne.Hassan Kuchak, a Chobanid prince, was murdered late in 1343. Surgan, son ofSati Beg, the sister of Abu Sa'id, found himself competing for control of the Chobanid lands with the late ruler's brotherMalek Ashraf and his uncleYagi Basti. When he was defeated by Malek Asraf, he fled to his mother and stepfather. The three of them then formed an alliance, but whenHasan Buzurg (Jalayirid) decided to withdraw the support he promised, the plan fell apart, and they fled toDiyarbakır. Surgan was defeated again in 1345 by Malek Asraf and they fled toAnatolia. Coinage dating from that year appears inHesn Kayfa in Sati Beg's name; this is the last trace of her. Surgan moved from Anatolia to Baghdad, where he was eventually executed by Hasan Buzurg; Sati Beg may have suffered the same fate, but this is unknown.
In 1345, theGolden Horde made a second attempt to lay siege on the Genoese city ofKaffa. (An earlier attempt had failed because Kaffa was able to get provisions across theBlack Sea.)The 1345 siege would fail in the following year as the Mongols were struck with theBlack Plague and forced to retreat. This siege is therefore noted as one of the key events that brought the Black Plague to Europe.
TheKingdom of Hungary saw the threat of the growing power of the Golden Horde and as such, in 1345 it began a campaign against the Tatars and the Horde, in the area what would become a few years laterMoldavia.Andrew Lackfi, theVoivode ofTransylvania and hisSzékely warriors were victorious in their campaign, decapitating the local Tatar leader, the brother-in-law of the Khan, Atlamïş and making the Tatars flee toward the coastal area.[12]
Amir Qazaghan (d. 1358) was the leader of theQara'unas tribe (1345 at the latest – 1358) and the powerful de facto ruler of theChagataiulus (1346–1358). In 1345 he revolted againstQazan Khan, but was unsuccessful. The following year he would try again and succeed in killing the khan. With this the effective power of the Chagatai khans would come to an end; the khanate eventually devolved into a loose confederation of tribes that respected the authority of Qazaghan, although he primarily commanded the loyalty of the tribes of the southern portion of theulus. He did not claim the khanship, but instead contented himself with his title ofamir and conferred the title of khan on puppets of his own choosing: firstDanishmendji (1346–1348) and thenBayan Qulï (1348–1358).[13]
By 1345, theYuan dynasty in China was steadily declining. Chinese peasants, upset with the lack of effective policies by the government when they were facing droughts, floods, and famines, were becoming rebellious. TheYellow River flooded inJinan in 1345. The river had flooded previously in 1335 and in 1344.[14] There was also conflict between the rulers of the dynasty.Zhu Yuanzhang was about 16 years old in 1345. His parents and brothers had died of plague or famine (or both) in 1344,[15] and he joined aBuddhist monastery. In 1345 he left the monastery and joined a band of rebels.[16][17] He would lead a series of rebellions until he overthrew the Yuan dynasty and became the first emperor of theMing dynasty in 1368.
Muhammad bin Tughluq was reigning asSultan of Delhi in 1345 when there was a revolt of Muslim military commanders in the Daulatabad area. In Bengal, on the eastern border of the Sultanate, a general named llyas captured East Bengal, leading to its reunification. He established his capital atGaur. In southern India,Harihara I had founded theVijayanagara Empire in 1336. After the death of HoysalaVeera Ballala III during a battle against the Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala Empire had merged with the growing Vijayanagara Empire. In these first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title ofPurvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western oceans"). TheJaffna Kingdom, which encompassed the southern tip of India and parts ofSri Lanka; there was continual conflict with Vijayanagara and the smallerKotte Kingdom of southern Sri Lanka.
From 1336 to 1392, two courts claimed the throne ofJapan. This was known as theNanboku-chō, or the Northern and Southern Courts period. In theNorthern Court,Emperor Go-Murakami claimed the throne. In the Southern Court,Emperor Kōmyō claimed the throne.
In Southeast Asia,Sukhothai changed hands to a new Siamese dynasty in 1345.[18] A Buddhist work, theTraibhumikatha, was composed by the King of Siam in the same year.[19] The Sukhothai Emperor also wrote a similar Buddhist work, theTri Phum Phra Ruang. Both works describe Southeast Asiancosmological ideas which still exist today. Life is said in these books to be divided into 31 levels of existence separated between three worlds.[20]Angkor was in a period of decline, forced to devote much of its resources to skirmishes with the Sukhothai and Siamese, which leftChampa free to attackĐại Việt and opened the way forLopburi to spring up, all of which happened right around this year.[21] A Buddhist colony also existed to the west in theMon Empire, which struggled to maintain its existence in the face of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate to the west and the Mongol Chinese to the north.
The Majapahit Empire, which occupied much of theIndonesian Archipelago, was ruled by empressTribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi. During Tribhuwana's rule, the Majapahit kingdom had grown much larger and became famous in the area.Gajah Mada reigned at the time along with the empress asmahapatih (prime minister) ofMajapahit. It was during their rule in 1345 that the famous Muslim travellerIbn Battuta visited Samudra in the Indonesian Archipelago. According to Battuta's report on his visit to Samudra, the ruler of the local area was a Muslim, and the people worshiped as Muslims in mosques and recited theKoran. Many Islamic traders and travelers had already scattered themselves along the major cities and coasts surrounding the Indian Ocean by this time.[22]
By 1345, theHundred Years' War between France and England had been going on for only about eight years. The English claimed the right to the French throne, and the French refused to be ruled by foreigners. In August the EnglishEarl of Derby commenced theGascon campaign of 1345, taking a large French army atBergerac, Dordogne by surprise anddecisively defeating it. Later in the campaign, on 21 October the French were besieging the castle at Auberoche, when Derby's army caught them off guard during their evening meal and won one of themost decisive battles of the war. This set the stage for English dominance in the area for several years. Previous to this, the French had been having success, and the English had even offered a treaty, but with this battle along with Derby's overrunning of theAgenais (lost twenty years before in theWar of Saint-Sardos) andAngoulême, as well as the forces in Brittany under SirThomas Dagworth also making gains, the tide turned somewhat in this year.
A new machine was introduced to this war in 1345—cannon. "Ribaldis", as they were then called, are first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for theBattle of Crécy between 1345 and 1346.[23] These were believed to have shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot, but they were so important they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe.[23]
A kind of side conflict to the Hundred Years' War was theWar of the Breton Succession, a conflict between the Houses of Blois and Montfort for control of theDuchy of Brittany. The French backed Blois and the English backed Montfort in what became a miniature of the wider conflict between the two countries. The House of Blois had laid siege to the town ofQuimper in early 1344, and continued into 1345. During the summer and autumn of 1344, the Montfortist party had fallen apart. Even those who had been John of Montfort's staunchest allies now considered it futile to continue the struggle. It therefore mattered little that in March 1345 John finally managed to escape to England. With no adherents of note of his own, he was now little more than a figurehead for English ambitions in Brittany.
Edward III decided to repudiate the truce in summer 1345, a year before it was due to run out. As part of his larger strategy, a force was dispatched to Brittany under the joint leadership of theEarl of Northampton and John of Montfort. Within a week of their landing in June, the English had their first victory when SirThomas Dagworth, one of Northampton's lieutenants, raided central Brittany and defeated Charles of Blois atCadoret nearJosselin.
The follow-up was less impressive. Further operations were delayed until July when Montfort attempted the recapture of Quimper. However, news had reached the French government that Edward's main campaign had been cancelled and they were able to send reinforcements from Normandy. With his strengthened army, Charles of Blois broke the siege. Routed, Montfort fled back to Hennebont where he fell ill and died 16 September. The heir to the Montfortist cause was his 5-year-old son,John.
During the winter, Northampton fought a long and hard winter campaign with the apparent objective of seizing a harbour on the north side of the peninsula. Edward III had probably planned to land here with his main force during summer 1346. However, the English achieved very little for their efforts. Northern Brittany was Joanna of Dreux’ home region and resistance here was stiff. The only bright spot for the English was victory at theBattle of La Roche-Derrien, where the small town was captured and a garrison installed underRichard Totesham.
Also in England in 1345,Princess Joan was betrothed toPedro of Castile, son ofAlfonso XI of Castile andMaria of Portugal. She would never marry him, however, but would die of theBlack Plague on her journey to Spain to meet him. Spain, meanwhile, continued its struggle to regain Muslim territory on theIberian Peninsula. In that same year Alfonso XI attacked Gibraltar as a part of theReconquista, but was unable to conquer it.[24] In 1345 Muhammud V was made its ruler.[25] TheYork Minster Cathedral, the largestGothic cathedral in northern Europe, was completed in this year as well. It remains the largest in the region to this day. England was still recovering from French occupation. Until 1345, all school instruction had been in French, rather than English.[26]
The Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris was completed in 1345.
Besides the War of Succession and the Hundred Years' War, France was in the midst of an interesting period. Several decades earlier, the Roman Papacy had moved to Avignon and would not return to Rome for another 33 years. TheAvignon Papacy was then ruled byPope Clement VI, who was aiding the French in their war against the English with Church funds. Also, in the year 1345, the famousNotre Dame Cathedral in Paris was completed after nearly two centuries of planning and construction.[27] On 24 March, a man named Guy de Chauliac observed a strange astronomical sign: the planets Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars conjoined in the sky under the sign of Aquarius. That same day the area experienced a solar eclipse. This sign was interpreted as foreboding by many, and Chauliac would later blame it for theBlack Plague, which arrived less than five years later.[1][2]
On 1 January, emperorLouis IV's sonLouis VI the Roman married Cunigunde, a Lithuanian Princess. Besides this move, the emperor continued his policy of expansion by conferringHainaut,Holland,Zeeland andFriesland upon his wifeMargaret of Holland after the death ofWilliam IV at theBattle of Warns. The hereditary titles to these lands owned by Margaret's sisters were ignored. This widened a divide which had already been growing between himself and the lay princes of Germany, who disliked his restless expansion policy. His actions in this year eventually led to a civil war, which was cut short by his death by stroke two years later.
On 12 March, aeucharisticmiracle occurred inAmsterdam, now called theMiracle of the Host. It involved a dying man vomiting upon being given the Holy Sacrament andlast rites in his home. The Host was then put in the fire, but miraculously remained intact and could be retrieved from the fire in one piece without the heat burning the hand of the person that retrieved it. This miracle was later officially recognised as such by the Roman Catholic Church, and a large pilgrimage chapel was built where the house had stood. Every year, thousands of Catholics take part in theStille Omgang, or procession to the place of the miracle.
Holland, meanwhile, was in the midst of theFriso-Hollandic Wars, as theCounts of Holland continued their efforts to conquer nearbyFriesland in theBattle of Warns. In 1345William IV, Count of Holland, prepared a military action to conquer Middle Frisia, crossing theZuiderzee with a large fleet and with the help of French andFlemish knights, some of whom had just returned fromcrusade. He set sail inEnkhuizen, together with his uncleJohn of Beaumont, and landed nearStavoren andLaaxum and planned to use theSint-Odulphusmonastery near Stavoren as afortification. The Hollandic knights worearmour, but had no horses as there wasn't enough room in the ships, which were full of building materials and supplies.
William's troops set fire to the abandoned villages of Laaxum andWarns and started to advance towards Stavoren. In the countryside around Warns the Hollandic count was attacked by the local inhabitants. With their heavy armour the knights were no match for the furious Frisian farmers and fishermen. As they fled they entered a swamp where they were decisively beaten. Their commander William IV of Holland was killed, and was succeeded by his sister Margaret of Holland, wife of Louis IV. When John of Beaumont heard what had happened, he ordered a retreat back to the ships. They were pursued by the Frisians and most did not make it back. Count William's death in this battle paved the way for theHook and Cod wars, and 26 September, the day of the battle, remains a national holiday inFriesland today.
Reforza d'Agoult was sent in the spring of 1345 byJoanna of Anjou, viceroy to northern Italy in hopes of putting an end to the war with theMargravate of Montferrat. Reforza conqueredAlba and besiegedGamenario, a castle in the neighbourhood of Santena.Lombard Ghibellines formed an anti-Angevin alliance, headed byJohn II, Marquess of Montferrat. On 22 April, he confronted Reforza d'Agoult and battle was joined. The meeting was brief and bloody. Initially uncertain, the outcome was a victory for the Ghibellines, who recovered the besieged fortress and dealt a severe blow toAngevin influence in Piedmont. To celebrate his victory, John built a new church inAsti in honour ofSaint George, near whose feast day the battle was won. Saint George held a special place for the men of chivalry of the Medieval, because he was the Saint that killed the dragon and was therefore held in a warrior cult.
Andrew, Duke of Calabria, was assassinated by conspiracy in 1345. He had been appointed joint heir with his wife,Joan I, to the throne of Naples by the Pope. This, however, sat ill with the Neapolitan people and nobles; neither was Joan content to share her sovereignty. With the approval ofPope Clement VI, Joan was crowned as sole monarch of Naples in August 1344. Fearing for his life, Andrew wrote to his mother Elizabeth that he would soon flee the kingdom. She intervened, and made a state visit; before she returned to Hungary, she bribed Pope Clement to reverse himself and permit the coronation of Andrew. She also gave a ring to Andrew, which was supposed to protect him from death by blade or poison, and returned with a false sense of security to Hungary.
Thus, in 1345, hearing of the Pope's reversal, a group of noble conspirators (probably including Queen Joan) determined to forestall Andrew's coronation. During a hunting trip at Aversa, Andrew left his room in the middle of the night and was set upon by the conspirators. A treacherous servant barred the door behind him; and as Joan cowered in their bed, a terrible struggle ensued, Andrew defending himself furiously and shrieking for aid. He was finally overpowered, strangled with a cord, and flung from a window. The horrible deed would taint the rest of Joan's reign.
Other events in Italy in 1345 includeAmbrogio Lorenzetti's painting of a map of the world for the palace atSiena. The painting has since been lost, but the instruments which he used to make it still survive, giving insights into mapmaking techniques of the day.[30] ThePeruzzi family, a big banking family and precursor to theMedici family went bankrupt in 1345, and in 1345 Florence was the scene of an attempted strike by wool combers (ciompi). A few decades later they would rise in a full-scale revolt. In Verona,Mastino II della Scala began the construction of hisScaliger Tomb, an architectural structure still standing today.
Coin bearing the image ofAlgirdas, who gained the Duchy of Lithuania from his brother in 1345
In Sweden and states bordering theBaltic Sea, the oldest surviving manuscript from the first Swedish law to be put to paper is from c. 1345, although earlier versions probably existed. The law was created for the young townStockholm'scustoms, but it was also used inLödöse and probably in a few other towns, as well. No town was allowed to use the law without the formal permission by the Swedish king. Its use may have become more widespread if it had not been superseded by the new town law by KingMagnus Eriksson (1316–1374). The termBjarkey Laws was however used for a long time for Magnus Eriksson's law in various locations.
Records also exist for the emigration of Swedes toEstonia in this year. Early mentions of Swedes in Estonia came in 1341 and 1345 (when an Estonian monastery inPadise sold "the Laoküla Estate" andSuur-Pakri Island to a group of Swedes).During the13th through15th centuries, large numbers of Swedes arrived in coastal Estonia from Finland, which was under Swedish control (and would remain so for hundreds of years), often settling on Church-owned land.
1345 marked the end of a series of skirmishes begun in the 1343St. George's Night Uprising. The rebellion, which was by this time limited to the island ofSaaremaa, was stifled in 1345. After the rebellion Denmark sold its domains in Estonia to theTeutonic Order in 1346. The fighting had started as a protest by indigenous Estonians to Danish and German rule. Parts of Estonia such as the city ofValga suffered raids from the nearby Lithuanian rulers.
In Lithuania in 1345Grand DukeJaunutis was deposed by his brothers. Very little is known about years when Jaunutis ruled except that they were quite peaceful years, as theTeutonic Knights were led by ineffectiveLudolf König.[31] TheBychowiec Chronicle mentions that Jaunutis was supported byJewna, presumed wife of Gediminas and mother of his children. She died ca. 1344 and soon after Jaunutis lost his throne. If he was indeed protected by his mother, then it would be an interesting example of influence held byqueen mother in pagan Lithuania.[31] However, a concrete stimulus might have been a majorreise planned by the Teutonic Knights in 1345.[32]
In 1345, theByzantine civil war continued. Having exploited the conflict to expand his realm intoMacedonia, following the conquest ofSerresStefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia proclaimed himself "Tsar of the Serbs and Romans". By the end of the year, hisSerbian Empire included all of Macedonia, except forThessalonica, and all ofAlbania, except forDyrrhachium, held by theAngevins.[33] The first known line of Serbian text written in the Latin alphabet is dated to this year. Serbia was recognized as the most powerful empire in the Balkans for the next several years.
The Byzantine civil war also allowed the emergence of a local quasi-independent principality in theRhodope, headed by the Bulgarian brigandMomchil, who had switched his allegiance fromJohn VI Kantakouzenos to the regency inConstantinople. On 7 July, the army ofUmur Beg, the Turkishemir of Aydin and Kantakouzenos' chief ally,met and defeated Momchil's forces at Peritheorion. Momchil himself was killed in the battle.[34][35]
On 11 June,Alexios Apokaukos, the driving force behind the Constantinopolitan regency and main instigator of the civil war, was murdered.[36] His demise led to a wave of defections to the Kantakouzenist camp, most prominently his own son, John Apokaukos, the governor of Thessalonica. He plotted to surrender the city to Kantakouzenos, and had the leader of the Zealots, a certain Michael Palaiologos, killed. The Zealots however reacted violently: in a popular uprising, led by Andreas Palaiologos, they overpowered Apokaukos and killed or expelled most of the city's remaining aristocrats.[37] The events are described byDemetrius Cydones:
...one after another the prisoners were hurled from the walls of the citadel and hacked to pieces by the mob of the Zealots assembled below. Then followed a hunt for all the members of the upper classes: they were driven through the streets like slaves, with ropes round their necks-here a servant dragged his master, there a slave his purchaser, while the peasant struck the strategus and the labourer beat the soldier (i.e. thepronoiar).[38]
Byzantine Empire in 1328
In 1345, the Greek island ofChios fell to the GenoeseGiustiniani. The Genoese also sacked the city ofDvigrad inIstria in this same year.Aquileian patriarchs had for some time fought fiercely against Venetians which had already gained considerable influence on the west coast of Istria. It was during these confrontations that the town fell.
In 1344,Hugh IV of Cyprus joined a league withVenice and theKnights Hospitaller which burnt a Turkish fleet inSmyrna and captured the city. In 1345 the allies defeated the Turks atImbros by land and sea, but Hugh could see little benefit for his kingdom in these endeavors and withdrew from the league. Meanwhile,Umur Beg transformed the Beylik of Aydınoğlu into a serious naval power with base in İzmir and posed a threat particularly for Venetian possessions in theAegean Sea. The Venetians organized an alliance uniting several European parties (Sancta Unio), composed notably of the Knights Hospitaller, which organized five consecutive attacks on İzmir and the Western Anatolian coastline controlled by Turkish states. In between, it was the Turks who organized maritime raids directed at Aegean islands.[39]
John XIV sparked the civil conflict when he convinced the Empress that John V's rule was threatened by the ambitions of Kantakouzenos. In September 1341, whilst Kantakouzenos was in Thrace, Kalekas declared himself as regent and launched a vicious attack on Kantakouzenos, his supporters & family.[40] In October Anna ordered Kantakouzenos to resign his command.[41] Kantakouzenos not only refused, he declared himself Emperor at Didymoteichon, allegedly to protect John V's rule from Kalekas. Whether or not Kantakouzenos wished to be Emperor is not known, but the provocative actions of the Patriarch forced Kantakouzenos to fight to retain his power and start the civil war.
There were not nearly enough troops to defend Byzantium's borders at the time and there certainly was not enough for the two factions to split – consequently, more foreigners would flood the Empire into a state of chaos – Kantakouzenos hired Turks and Serbs – his main supply of Turkish mercenaries came from the Umur of Aydin,[42] a nominal ally established by Andronikos III. The Regency of John V relied on Turkish mercenaries as well.[42] However, Kantakouzenos began to draw support from the Ottoman Sultan Orkhan, who wed Kantakouzenos' daughter in 1345.[42] By 1347, Kantakouzenos had triumphed and entered Constantinople. However, in his hour of victory, he came to an accord with Anna and her son, John V. John V (now 15 years of age) and Kantakouzenos would rule as co-emperors, though John V would be the junior in this relationship.[42] The unlikely peace would not last long.
The Turks attackedSmyrna on January 17 and the Ottomans annexed Qarasi in west Asia minor.[43] Later, Pope Clement urged further attacks on theLevant.[44]
Pope Clement VI said in 1345: "the acquisition of the kingdom of Africa belongs to us and our royal right and to no one else."[45] Ironically, in the same year, trade was established between Italy and theMamluk Sultanate in Egypt. This marked the beginning of reliable trading of spice to theAdriatic Sea.[46]
^Andrzej Pleszczynski; Grischa Vercamer (2021).Germans and Poles in the Middle Ages: The Perception of the 'Other' and the Presence of Mutual Ethnic Stereotypes in Medieval Narrative Sources. Brill. p. 216.ISBN9789004466555.
^abRowell, C. S. (1994).Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-Central Europe, 1295-1345. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series. Cambridge University Press. pp. 280–287.ISBN978-0-521-45011-9.
^Kiaupa, Zigmantas; Jūratė Kiaupienė; Albinas Kuncevičius (2000) [1995].The History of Lithuania Before 1795 (English ed.). Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History. p. 118.ISBN978-9986-810-13-1.
