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Theeight-hour day movement (also known as the40-hour week movement or theshort-time movement) was asocial movement to regulate the length of aworking day, preventing excesses and abuses ofworking time.
The modern movement originated in theIndustrial Revolution in Britain, where industrial production in large factories transformed working life. At that time, the working day could range from 10 to 16 hours, thework week was typically six days, andchild labour was common.[1][2] In 1919, Spain became the first country to introduce the eight-hour work day by law for factory and fortification workers.[3] It was first established for non-agricultural workers byUruguay in 1915.[4]
In 1594,Philip II of Spain established an eight-hour work day for the construction workers in the American Viceroyalties by a royal edict known asOrdenanzas de Felipe II, or Ordinances of Philip II. This established:
Ley VI Que los obreros trabajen 8 horas al día repartidas como convenga.
Todos los obreros trabajaran ocho horas al día, cuatro á la mañana, y cuatro á la tarde en fortificaciones y fábricas, que se hicieren, repartidas á los tiempos más convenientes para librarse del rigor del sol, más o menos lo que á los ingenieros pareciere, de forma que no faltando un punto de lo posible, también se atienda à procurar su salud y conservación.
Law VI That the workers work eight hours a day distributed as appropriate.
All the workers will work eight hours a day, four in the morning, and four in the afternoon in fortifications and factories, which [The hours] are to be made, distributed at the most convenient times to get rid of the rigor of the sun, [and] more or less what seems to [be right to] the engineers, so that not missing a point of the possible [work], it is also attended to ensure their health and conservation.
— Recopilación de leyes de los reinos de las indias. Mandadas a Imprimir y Publicar por la majestad católica del rey Don Carlos II, nuestro señor. Libro Tercero.[5]: 37
An exception was applied to mine workers, whose work day was limited to seven hours. These working conditions were also applied to natives in theSpanish America, who also kept their own legislation organised in "Indian republics" where they elected their own mayors.[3]
In the early 19th century,Robert Owen raised the demand for a ten-hour day in 1810, and instituted it in his "socialist" enterprise atNew Lanark. By 1817, he had formulated the goal of the eight-hour day and coined the slogan: "Eight hours' labour, Eight hours' recreation, Eight hours' rest". Women and children in England were granted the ten-hour day via theFactories Act 1847. French workers won the twelve-hour day after theFebruary Revolution of 1848.[6]
A shorter working day and improved working conditions were part of the general protests and agitation forChartist reforms and the early organisation of trade unions. There were initial successes in achieving an eight-hour day in New Zealand and by theAustralian labour movement for skilled workers in the 1840s and 1850s, though most employed people had to wait to the early and mid twentieth century for the condition to be widely achieved through the industrialised world through legislative action.
TheInternational Workingmen's Association took up the demand for an eight-hour day at itsCongress inGeneva in 1866, declaring "The legal limitation of the working day is a preliminary condition without which all further attempts at improvements and emancipation of the working class must prove abortive", and "The Congress proposes eight hours as the legal limit of the working day."Karl Marx saw it as of vital importance to the workers' health, writing inDas Kapital (1867): "By extending the working day, therefore, capitalist production...not only produces a deterioration of human labour power by robbing it of its normal moral and physical conditions of development and activity, but also produces the premature exhaustion and death of thislabour power itself."[7][8]
On 17 November 1915,Uruguay adopted an eight-hour working day, under the government ofJosé Batlle y Ordóñez.[9] Nevertheless, the law was not effective on all type of works. On 3 April 1919, Spain introduced a universal law effective on all type of works, restricting the workday to a maximum of eight hours. The "Real decreto de 3 de abril de 1919" was signed by the prime minister,Álvaro de Figueroa, 1st Count of Romanones. The first international treaty to mention it was theTreaty of Versailles in the annex of its thirteenth part establishing the International Labour Office, now theInternational Labour Organization.[10]
The eight-hour day was the first topic discussed by the International Labour Organization which resulted in theHours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 ratified by 52 countries as of 2016. The eight-hour day movement forms part of the early history for the celebration ofMay Day, and Labour Day in some countries.
Tata Steel was among the first Indian companies to provide various labour welfare benefits, such as eight-hour workdays since 1912, free medical care since 1915, school facilities for the children of employees since 1917, paid time off since 1920, formation of a provident fund and accident compensation in 1920, vocational training since 1921, maternity benefits since 1928, profit sharing bonuses since 1934, and retiring gratuity since 1937.[11]
In Iran in 1918, the work of reorganizing the trade unions began in earnest inTehran during the closure of the Iranian constitutional parliamentMajles. The printers' union, established in 1906 by Mohammad Parvaneh as the first trade union, in the Koucheki print shop on Nasserieh Avenue inTehran, reorganised their union under leadership of Russian-educated Seyed Mohammad Dehgan, a newspaper editor and an avowed Communist. In 1918, the newly organised union staged a 14-day strike and succeeded in reaching a collective agreement with employers to institute the eight-hours day, overtime pay, and medical care. The success of the printers' union encouraged other trades to organise. In 1919 the bakers and textile-shop clerks formed their own trade unions.
However the eight-hour day only became code by a limited governor's decree on 1923 by the governor ofKerman,Sistan andBalochistan, which controlled the working conditions and working hours for workers of carpet workshops in the province. In 1946, the council of ministers issued the first labour law for Iran, which recognized the eight-hour day.
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Theodor Herzl'sThe Jewish State proposed a 7-hour day for the Jewish Company that would implement the initial stages of theJewish homeland.[12]
The first company to introduce an eight-hour working day inJapan was the Kawasaki Dockyards inKobe (now theKawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation). An eight-hour day was one of the demands presented by the workers during pay negotiations in September 1919. After the company resisted the demands, aslowdown campaign was commenced by the workers on 18 September. After ten days of industrial action, company presidentKōjirō Matsukata agreed to the eight-hour day and wage increases on 27 September, which became effective from October. The effects of the action were felt nationwide and inspired further industrial action at the Kawasaki andMitsubishi shipyards in 1921.[13]
The eight-hour day did not become law in Japan until the passing of theLabour Standards Act in April 1947. Article 32 (1) of the Act specifies a 40-hour week and paragraph (2) specifies an eight-hour day, excluding rest periods.[14]
InIndonesia, the first policy regarding working time regulated in Law No. 13 of 2003 about employment. In the law, it stated that a worker should work for seven hours a day for six days a week or eight hours a day for five days a week, excluding rest periods.[15]
InChina, the first company to introduce the eight-hour working day was the Baocheng Cotton Mill in the port city ofTianjin (Chinese:天津市寶成紗廠). Its manager Wu Jingyi (Chinese:吳鏡儀) announced on 16 February 1930 throughTa Kung Pao that his factory is starting the new 8-hour work schedule immediately. The workers were elated. The union representative Liu Dongjiang (Chinese:劉東江) stated "Under the spirit of cooperation, labourers and factory owners work together to advance the business, and in turn to contribute to our nation's development." A celebration was held on the same day in the courtyard of the factory.
The new schedule was called "3–8 schedule". The first shift worked 6 am – 2 pm; the 2nd shift 2 pm – 10 pm; the 3rd shift 10 pm – 6 am. Manager Wu Jingyi reasoned: "All of the factories now have a 12-hour work schedule. Workers are all exhausted and do not have time to take care of their families. In case of workers getting sick, the business also suffers. Therefore we decided to start trying the eight-hour working day".
TheBeiyang government inBeijing had issued a decree "Provisional Regulations for factories" as early as in 1923, stating "Child-labourers shall not work more than 8 hours per day and shall have 3 days of rest per week; while adult labourers shall not work more than 10 hours per day and shall have 2 days of rest per week." After the successfulNorthern Expedition, the newNanking government established the Bureau of Labour in 1928, followed by issuing the "Factory Law" in 1929 to set legal framework for the eight-hour working day. Yet, no business actually implemented this until 1930 by Baocheng Cotton Mill.[16][17]
The eight-hour work day was introduced inBelgium on 9 September 1924.
The eight-hour work day was introduced by law inDenmark on 17 May 1919, after a year-long campaign by workers.[18]
As a result of large-scale demonstrations and strikes in the late 19th and early 20th century, the formerCzechoslovakia, nowCzechia andSlovakia, introduced the eight-hour workday on 19 December 1918.[19]
The eight-hour work day was established inFinland in 1917 as a result of the November general strike. According to the law accepted in late 1917, maximum work day was 8 hours and maximum work week 47 hours. Five-day work week was established gradually between 1966 and 1970.[20] A worker receives 150% payment from the first two extra hours, and 200% salary if the work day exceeds 10 hours.
The eight-hour day was enacted in France byGeorges Clemenceau, as a way to avoid unemployment and diminish communist support. It was succeeded by a strong French support of it during the writing of theInternational Labour Organization Convention of 1919.[21]
The first German company to introduce the eight-hour day wasDegussa in 1884. The eight-hour day for industrial workers was signed into law during theGerman Revolution of 1918 by the newSocial Democratic government.[22] The eight-hour day was a concession to theworkers' and soldiers' soviets, and was unpopular among industrialists. A 12-hour day was reintroduced by a right-wing government during theoccupation of the Ruhr and subsequenthyperinflation crisis in 1923. TheLabour Ministry eventually shortened wages in the late 1920s.[23]
InHungary, the eight-hour work day was introduced on 14 April 1919 by decree of theRevolutionary Governing Council.[24]
The eight-hour work day became legal inItaly on 17 April 1925 after a law passed 15 March 1923[25] that authorised the king to set a limit on daily work hours, and a royal decree issued on 10 September 1923. The law set a maximum limit of work at eight hours per day, albeit for six days a week for a 48-hour work week.[26] On 13 January 1938, the length of the work week was reduced to 40 hours.
The Factory Act of 1915 introduced a 10-hour workday.[27]
InPoland, the eight-hour day was introduced 23 November 1918 by decree of the cabinet of the Prime MinisterJędrzej Moraczewski.[28]
InPortugal a vast wave of strikes occurred in 1919, supported by the National Workers' Union, the biggest labour union organisation at the time. The workers achieved important objectives, including the historic victory of an eight-hour day.
In theSoviet Union, the eight-hour day was introduced four days after theOctober Revolution, by aDecree of theSoviet government in 1917[29] and later in 1928[30] and 1940–1957 (World War II).[31]
In the region ofAlcoy, a workers strike in 1873 for the eight-hour day followed much agitation from theanarchists. In 1919 inBarcelona, after a44-day general strike with over 100,000 participants had effectively crippled theCatalan economy, the Government settled the strike by granting all the striking workers demands that included an eight-hour day, union recognition, and the rehiring of fired workers.Therefore, Spain became on 3 April 1919 the first country in the world to introduce a universal law effective on all type of works, restricting the workday to a maximum of eight hours: "Real decreto de 3 de abril de 1919", signed by the Prime Minister,Álvaro de Figueroa, 1st Count of Romanones.
Average work hours per week for manufacturing employees in Sweden was 64 hours in 1885, 60 hours in 1905, and 55 hours in 1919.[32]
The eight-hour work day was introduced into law inSweden on 4 August 1919, going into effect on 1 January 1920.[32] At the time, the work week was 48-hour since Saturday was a workday. The year before, 1918, the builders' union had pushed through a 51-hour work week.[33]
The Social Democratic Party was the main driver behind the eight-hour workday.[32] Once full male suffrage was implemented in Sweden, the parliament passed legislation to introduce an eight-hour workday.[32]
TheFactory Act 1833 limited the work day for children in factories. Those aged 9–13 could work only eight hours, 14–18 twelve hours. Children under 9 were required to attend school.
In 1884,Tom Mann joined theSocial Democratic Federation (SDF) and published a pamphlet calling for the working day to be limited to eight hours. Mann formed an organisation, the Eight Hour League, which successfully pressured theTrades Union Congress to adopt the eight-hour day as a key goal. The BritishFabian socialist economistSidney Webb and the scholarHarold Cox co-wrote a book supporting the "Eight Hours Movement" in Britain.[34]
The first group of Workers to achieve the 8-hour day were theBeckton [East London] Gas workers after the strike under the leadership ofWill Thorne, a member of the Social Democratic Federation. The strike action was initiated on 31 March 1889 after the introduction of compulsory 18-hour shifts, up from the previous 12 hours. Under the slogan of "shorten our hours to prolong our lives" the strike spread to other gas works. He petitioned the bosses and after a strike of some weeks, the bosses capitulated and three shifts of eight hours replaced two shifts of 12 hours. Will Thorne founded theGas Workers and General Labourers Union, which evolved into the modernGMB union.
Working hours in the UK are currently not limited by day, but by week, as first set by theWorking Time Regulations 1998,[35] which introduced a limit of 40 hours per week for workers under 18, and 48 hours per week for over 18s. This was in line with the European Commission Working Time Directive of 1993. UK regulations now follow theEC Working Time Directive of 2003, but workers can voluntarily opt out[36] of the 48 hour limit. A general eight hour limit to the working day has never been achieved in the UK. By the end of the 20th century, many people considered themselves to be "money-rich, time-poor".[citation needed]
The labour movement in Canada tracked progress in the US and UK. In 1890, the Federation of Labour took up this issue, hoping to organise participation inMay Day.[37]In the 1960s, Canada adopted the 40-hour work week.[38]
TheMexican Revolution of 1910–1920 produced theConstitution of 1917, which contained Article 123 that gave workers the right to organise labour unions and to strike. It also provided protection for women and children, the eight-hour day, and a living wage.SeeMexican labor law.
In the United States, Philadelphia carpenters went on strike in 1791 for the ten-hour day. By the 1830s, this had become a general demand. In 1835, workers inPhiladelphia organised the1835 Philadelphia general strike, the first general strike in North America, led byIrish coal heavers. Their banners read,From 6 to 6, ten hours work and two hours for meals.[39] Labour movement publications called for aneight-hour day as early as 1836.Boston ship carpenters, although not unionized, achieved an eight-hour day in 1842.
In 1864, the eight-hour day quickly became a central demand of theChicago labour movement. TheIllinois General Assembly passed a law in early 1867 granting an eight-hour day but it had so many loopholes that it was largely ineffective. A citywide strike that began on 1 May 1867 shut down the city's economy for a week before collapsing.
In August 1866, theNational Labor Union atBaltimore passed a resolution that said, "The first and great necessity of the present to free labor of this country fromcapitalist slavery, is the passing of a law by which eight hours shall be the normal working day in all States of the American Union. We are resolved to put forth all our strength until this glorious result is achieved."
On 25 June 1868,Congress passed an eight-hour law for federal employees[40][41] which was also of limited effectiveness. It established an eight-hour workday for labourers and mechanics employed by theFederal Government. PresidentAndrew Johnson had vetoed the act but it was passed over his veto. Johnson told aWorkingmen's Party delegation that he could not directly commit himself to an eight-hour day, he nevertheless told the same delegation that he greatly favored the "shortest number of hours consistent with the interests of all." According to Richard F. Selcer, however, the intentions behind the law were "immediately frustrated" as wages were cut by 20%.[42]
On 19 May 1869, PresidentUlysses S. Grant issued a Proclamation directing that the wages of federal government "laborers, workmen, and mechanics" paid by the day could not be cut when their workday was reduced to 8 hours under the 1868 law.[43]
During the 1870s, eight hours became a central demand, especially among labour organisers, with a network ofEight-Hour Leagues which held rallies and parades. A hundred thousand workers inNew York City struckfor the eight-hour day in 1872, mostly forbuilding trades workers. In Chicago,Albert Parsons became recording secretary of the Chicago Eight-Hour League in 1878, and was appointed a member of a national eight-hour committee in 1880.
At its convention in Chicago in 1884, theFederation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions resolved that "eight hours shall constitute a legal day's labour from and after May 1, 1886, and that we recommend to labour organizations throughout this jurisdiction that they so direct their laws as to conform to this resolution by the time named."
The leadership of theKnights of Labor, underTerence V. Powderly, rejected appeals to join the movement as a whole, but many local Knights assemblies joined the strike call including Chicago,Cincinnati andMilwaukee. On 1 May 1886 Albert Parsons, head of the Chicago Knights of Labor, led 80,000 people downMichigan Avenue in Chicago in what is regarded as the first modernMay Day Parade, with the cry, "Eight-hour day with no cut in pay." In the next few days they were joined nationwide by 350,000 workers who went on strike at 1,200 factories, including 70,000 in Chicago, 45,000 in New York, 32,000 in Cincinnati, and additional thousands in other cities. Some workers gained shorter hours (eight or nine) with no reduction in pay; others accepted pay cuts with the reduction in hours.
TheAmerican Federation of Labor, meeting inSt. Louis in December 1888, set 1 May 1890 as the day that American workers should work no more than eight hours. TheInternational Workingmen's Association (Second International), meeting inParis in 1889, endorsed the date for international demonstrations, thus starting the international tradition ofMay Day.
TheUnited Mine Workers won an eight-hour day in 1898.
TheBuilding Trades Council (BTC) of San Francisco, under the leadership ofP. H. McCarthy, won the eight-hour day in 1900 when the BTC unilaterally declared that its members would work only eight hours a day for US$3 a day (equivalent to $110 in 2024[44]). When the mill resisted, the BTC began organising mill workers; the employers responded bylocking out 8,000 employees throughout theBay Area. The BTC, in return, established a unionplaning mill from which construction employers could obtain supplies – or face boycotts andsympathy strikes if they did not. The mill owners went toarbitration, where the union won the eight-hour day, aclosed shop for all skilled workers, and an arbitration panel to resolve future disputes. In return, the union agreed to refuse to work with material produced by non-union planing mills or those that paid less than the Bay Area employers.
By 1905, the eight-hour day was widespread in the printing trades – seeInternational Typographical Union § Fight for better working conditions – but the majority of Americans worked 12- to 14-hour days.
In the1912 Presidential ElectionTeddy Roosevelt'sProgressive Partycampaign platform included the eight-hour work day.
On 5 January 1914 theFord Motor Company took the radical step of doubling pay to $5 a day (equivalent to $160 in 2024[44]) and cutting shifts from nine hours to eight, moves that were not popular with rival companies, although seeing the increase in Ford's productivity, and a significant increase in profit margin (from $30 million to $60 million in two years), most soon followed suit.[45][46][47]
In the summer of 1915, amid increased labour demand forWorld War I, a series of strikes demanding the eight-hour day began inBridgeport, Connecticut. They were so successful that they spread throughout theNortheast.[48]
The United StatesAdamson Act in 1916 established an eight-hour day, with additional pay forovertime, for railroad workers. This was the first federal law that regulated the hours of workers in private companies. TheUnited States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Act inWilson v. New,243 U.S.332 (1917).
The eight-hour day might have been realized for many working people in the US in 1937, when what became theFair Labor Standards Act (29 U.S. Code Chapter 8) was first proposed under theNew Deal. As enacted, the act applied to industries whose combined employment represented about twenty percent of the US labour force. In those industries, it set the maximum workweek at 40 hours,[49] but provided that employees working beyond 40 hours a week would receive additional overtime bonus salaries.[50]
InPuerto Rico in May 1899, while under US administration, GeneralGeorge W. Davis acceded to demands from Puerto Ricans and decreed freedom of assembly, speech, press, religion and an eight-hour day for government employees.
TheAustralian gold rushes attracted many skilled tradesmen to Australia. Some of them had been active in theChartist movement in Britain, and subsequently became prominent in the campaign for better working conditions in the Australian colonies. Workers began winning an eight-hour day in various companies and industries in the 1850s.
The Stonemasons' Society inSydney issued an ultimatum to employers on 18 August 1855 saying that after six months masons would work only an eight-hour day. Due to the rapid increase in population caused by the gold rushes, many buildings were being constructed, so skilled labour was scarce. Stonemasons working on the Holy Trinity Church and the Mariners' Church (an evangelical mission to seafarers), decided not to wait and pre-emptively went on strike, thus winning the eight-hour day. They celebrated with a victory dinner on 1 October 1855 which to this day is celebrated as a Labour Day holiday in the state ofNew South Wales. When the six-month ultimatum expired in February 1856, stonemasons generally agitated for a reduction of hours. Although opposed by employers, a two-week strike on the construction of Tooth's Brewery onParramatta Road proved effective, and stonemasons won an eight-hour day by early March 1856, but with a reduction in wages to match.[51]
Agitation was also occurring inMelbourne where the craft unions were more militant. Stonemasons working onMelbourne University organised to down tools on 21 April 1856 and march toParliament House with other members of the building trade. The movement in Melbourne was led by veteran Chartists, and masonsJames Stephens, T.W. Vine andJames Galloway. The government agreed that workers employed on public works should enjoy an eight-hour day with no loss of pay and stonemasons celebrated with a holiday and procession on Monday 12 May 1856, when about 700 people marched with 19 trades involved. By 1858, the eight-hour day was firmly established in the building industry and by 1860, the eight-hour day was fairly widely worked inVictoria. From 1879, the eight-hour day was a public holiday in Victoria. The initial success in Melbourne led to the decision to organise a movement, to actively spread the eight-hour idea, and secure the condition generally.
In 1903, veteran socialistTom Mann spoke to a crowd of a thousand people at the unveiling of the Eight Hour Day monument, funded by public subscription, on the south side of Parliament House on Spring St. It was relocated in 1923 to the corner of Victoria and Russell Streets outsideMelbourne Trades Hall.
It took further campaigning and struggles by trade unions to extend the reduction in hours to all workers in Australia. In 1916 theVictoria Eight Hours Act was passed granting the eight-hour day to all workers in the state. The eight-hour day was not achieved nationally until the 1920s. The Commonwealth Arbitration Court gave approval of the 40-hour five-day working week nationally beginning on 1 January 1948. The achievement of the eight-hour day has been described by historianRowan Cahill as "one of the great successes of the Australian working class during the nineteenth century, demonstrating to Australian workers that it was possible to successfully organise, mobilise, agitate, and exercise significant control over working conditions and quality of life. The Australian trade union movement grew out of eight-hour campaigning and the movement that developed to promote the principle."
The intertwined numbers888 soon adorned thepediment of many union buildings around Australia. The Eight Hour March, which began on 21 April 1856, continued each year until 1951 in Melbourne, when the conservativeVictorian Trades Hall Council decided to forgo the tradition for theMoomba festival on the Labour Day weekend. In capital cities and towns across Australia, Eight Hour day marches became a regular social event each year, with early marches often restricted to those workers who had won an eight-hour day.
Promoted by carpenterSamuel Duncan Parnell as early as 1840, when he refused to work more than eight hours a day when erecting a store for merchantGeorge Hunter. He successfully negotiated this working condition and campaigned for its extension in the infantWellington community. A meeting of Wellington carpenters in October 1840 pledged "to maintain the eight-hour working day, and that anyone offending should be ducked into the harbour".
Parnell is reported to have said: "There are twenty-four hours per day given us; eight of these should be for work, eight for sleep, and the remaining eight for recreation and in which for men to do what little things they want for themselves." With tradesmen in short supply the employer was forced to accept Parnell's terms. Parnell later wrote, "the first strike for eight hours a day the world has ever seen, was settled on the spot".[52][53]
Emigrants to the new settlement ofDunedin, Otago, while on board ship decided on a reduction of working hours. When the resident agent of theNew Zealand Company,Captain Cargill, attempted to enforce a ten-hour day in January 1849 inDunedin, he was unable to overcome the resistance of trades people under the leadership of house painter and plumber, Samuel Shaw. Building trades inAuckland achieved the eight-hour day on 1 September 1857 after agitation led by Chartist painter, William Griffin. For many years the eight-hour day was confined to craft tradesmen and unionised workers.Labour Day, which commemorates the introduction of the eight-hour day, became a national public holiday in 1899.
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A strike for the eight-hour day was held in May 1919 inPeru. InUruguay, the eight-hour day was put in place in 1915 of several reforms implemented during the second term of presidentJosé Batlle y Ordóñez. It was introduced inChile on 8 September 1924 at the demand of then-generalLuis Altamirano as part of theRuido de sables that culminated in theSeptember Junta.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[A] ten-hour center like Bridgeport was converted overnight into an eight-hour community, a result that ten years of agitation under normal conditions might not have accomplished.
