Quaoar has one known moon,Weywot, which was discovered by Brown in February 2007.[21] Both objects were named after mythological figures from the Native AmericanTongva people in Southern California.Quaoar is the Tongva creator deity andWeywot is his son. In 2023, astronomers announced the discovery of two thinrings orbiting Quaoar outside itsRoche limit, which defies theoretical expectations that rings outside the Roche limit should not be stable.[14]
Quaoar was discovered using theSamuel Oschin telescope atPalomar ObservatoryAnimation of three discovery images taken over a period of 4.5 hours, showing the slow movement of Quaoar (indicated by the arrow)[22]
To ascertain Quaoar's orbit, Brown and Trujillo initiated a search for archivalprecovery images. They obtained several precovery images taken by theNear-Earth Asteroid Tracking survey from various observatories in 1996 and 2000–2002.[22] In particular, they had also found two archivalphotographic plates taken by astronomerCharles T. Kowal in May 1983,[25] who at the time was searching for the hypothesizedPlanet X at the Palomar Observatory.[27][28] From these precovery images, Brown and Trujillo were able to calculate Quaoar's orbit and distance. Additional precovery images of Quaoar have been later identified, with the earliest known found by Edward Rhoads on a photographic plate imaged on 25 May 1954 from thePalomar Observatory Sky Survey.[1][3]
Before announcing the discovery of Quaoar, Brown had planned to conduct follow-up observations using theHubble Space Telescope to measure Quaoar's size.[29] He had also planned to announce the discovery as soon as possible and found it necessary to keep the discovery information confidential during the follow-up observations.[30] Rather than submitting his Hubble proposal underpeer review, Brown submitted his proposal directly to one of Hubble's operators, who promptly allocated time to Brown.[30][31] While setting up the observing algorithm for Hubble, Brown had also planned to use one of theKeck telescopes inMauna Kea, Hawaii, as a part of a study oncryovolcanism on themoons ofUranus.[30] This provided him additional time for follow-up observations and took advantage of the whole observing session in July to analyze Quaoar'sspectrum and characterize its surface composition.[32][30]
Upon Quaoar's discovery, it was initially given the temporary nickname "Object X" as a reference toPlanet X, due to its potentially large size and unknown nature.[30] At the time, Quaoar's size was uncertain, and its brightness led the discovery team to speculate that it may be a tenth planet. After measuring Quaoar's size with the Hubble Space Telescope in July, the team began considering names for the object, particularly those from localNative American mythologies.[30] Following theInternational Astronomical Union's (IAU)naming convention forminor planets, non-resonant Kuiper belt objects are to be named aftercreation deities.[33] The team settled on the nameKwawar, the creator god of theTongva people indigenous to theLos Angeles Basin, where Brown's institute, theCalifornia Institute of Technology, was located.[27]
According to Brown, the name "Quaoar" is pronounced with three syllables, and Trujillo's website on Quaoar gives a three-syllable pronunciation,/ˈkwɑːoʊ(w)ɑːr/, as an approximation of the Tongva pronunciation[ˈkʷaʔuwar].[24] The name can be also pronounced as two syllables,/ˈkwɑːwɑːr/, reflecting the usual English spelling and pronunciation of the deity Kwawar.[29][34][35]
In Tongva mythology, Kwawar is the genderless[34] creation force of the universe, singing and dancing deities into existence.[2] He first sings and dances to create Weywot (Sky Father), then they together sing Chehooit (Earth Mother) and Tamit (Grandfather Sun) into existence. As they did this, the creation force became more complex as each new deity joined the singing and dancing. Eventually, after reducing chaos to order, they created the seven great giants that upheld the world,[24][29] then the animals and finally the first man and woman, Tobohar and Pahavit.[24]
Upon their investigation of names from Tongva mythology, Brown and Trujillo realized that there were contemporary members of the Tongva people, whom they contacted for permission to use the name.[30] They consulted tribal historian Marc Acuña, who confirmed that the nameKwawar would indeed be an appropriate name for the newly discovered object.[24][34] However, the Tongva preferred the spellingQua-o-ar, which Brown and Trujillo adopted, though with the hyphens omitted.[30] The name and discovery of Quaoar were publicly announced in October, though Brown had not sought approval of the name by the IAU'sCommittee on Small Body Nomenclature (CSBN).[30] Indeed, Quaoar's name was announced before the official numbering of the object, whichBrian Marsden—the head of the Minor Planet Center—remarked in 2004 to be a violation of the protocol.[30][36] Despite this, the name was approved by the CSBN, and the naming citation, along with Quaoar's official numbering, was published in aMinor Planet Circular on 20 November 2002.[37]
Quaoar was given theminor planet number 50000, which was not by coincidence but to commemorate its large size, being that it was found in the search for a Pluto-sized object in the Kuiper belt.[37] The large Kuiper belt object20000 Varuna was similarly numbered for a similar occasion.[38] However, subsequent even larger discoveries such as136199 Eris were simply numbered according to the order in which their orbits were confirmed.[33]
The usage ofplanetary symbols is no longer recommended in astronomy, so Quaoar never received a symbol in the astronomical literature. A symbol⟨⟩, used mostly among astrologers,[39] is included inUnicode as U+1F77E.[40] The symbol was designed by Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer in Massachusetts; it combines the letter Q (for 'Quaoar') with a canoe, and is stylized to recall angular Tongva rock art.[41]
Ecliptic view of Quaoar's orbit (blue) compared to Pluto (red) and Neptune (white). The approximate perihelion (q) and aphelion (Q) dates are marked for their respective orbits.Polar view of Quaoar's orbit (yellow) along with various other large Kuiper belt objects
Quaoar orbits theSun at an average distance of 43.7 AU (6.54 billion km; 4.06 billion mi), taking 288.8 years to complete one full orbit around the Sun. With anorbital eccentricity of 0.04, Quaoar follows a nearly circular orbit, only slightly varying in distance from 42 AU atperihelion to 45 AU ataphelion.[3] At such distances, light from the Sun takes more than 5 hours to reach Quaoar.[24] Quaoar has last passed aphelion in late 1932 and is currently approaching the Sun at a rate of 0.035 AU per year, or about 170 meters per second (380 mph).[42] Quaoar will reach perihelion around February 2075.[6]
Because Quaoar has a nearly circular orbit, it does not approach close toNeptune such that its orbit can become significantlyperturbed under the gravitational influence of Neptune.[4] Quaoar'sminimum orbit intersection distance from Neptune is only 12.3 AU—it does not approach Neptune within this distance over the course of its orbit, as it is not in amean-motion orbital resonance with Neptune.[1][4] Simulations by theDeep Ecliptic Survey show that the perihelion and aphelion distances of Quaoar's orbit do not change significantly over the next ten million years; Quaoar's orbit appears to be stable over the long term.[4]
Quaoar is atrans-Neptunian object.[3] It is classified as adistant minor planet by the Minor Planet Center.[1] Because Quaoar is not in a mean-motion resonance with Neptune, it is also classified as aclassical Kuiper belt object (cubewano) by the Minor Planet Center and Deep Ecliptic Survey.[4][5] Quaoar's orbit is moderately inclined to theecliptic plane by 8 degrees, relatively high when compared to the inclinations of Kuiper belt objects within the dynamically cold population.[30][43] Because Quaoar'sorbital inclination is greater than 4 degrees, it is part of the dynamically hot population of high-inclination classical Kuiper belt objects.[43] The high inclinations of hot classical Kuiper belt objects such as Quaoar are thought to have resulted from gravitational scattering by Neptune during its outwardmigration in the early Solar System.[44]
Quaoar'sfar-infraredthermal emission and brightness in visible light both vary significantly (visible light curve amplitude 0.12–0.16magnitudes) as Quaoar rotates every 17.68 hours, which most likely indicates Quaoar is elongated along its equator.[7] A 2024 analysis of Quaoar's visible and far-infrared rotational light curve by Csaba Kiss and collaborators determined that the lengths of Quaoar's equatorial axes differ by 19% (a/b = 1.19) and the lengths of Quaoar's polar and shortest equatorial axis differ by 16% (b/c = 1.16), which corresponds to ellipsoid dimensions of 1,286 km × 1,080 km × 932 km (799 mi × 671 mi × 579 mi).[a][7] The ellipsoidal shape of Quaoar matches the size and shape measurements from previous stellar occultations, and also explains why the size and shape of Quaoar appeared to change in these occultations.[7]: 6
Diagram showing three mutually orthogonal views of Quaoar's ellipsoidal shape
Quaoar's elongated shape contradicts theoretical expectations that it should be inhydrostatic equilibrium, because of its large size and slow rotation.[7]: 10 According to Michael Brown, rocky bodies around 900 km (560 mi) in diameter should relax intohydrostatic equilibrium, whereas icy bodies relax into hydrostatic equilibrium somewhere between 200 km (120 mi) and 400 km (250 mi).[49] Slowly-rotating objects in hydrostatic equilibrium are expected to beoblate spheroids (Maclaurin spheroids), whereas rapidly-rotating objects in hydrostatic equilibrium, such asHaumea which rotates in nearly 4 hours, are expected to be flattened and elongated ellipsoids (Jacobi ellipsoids).[7]: 10 To explain Quaoar's non-equilibrium shape, Kiss and collaborators hypothesized that Quaoar originally had a rapid rotation and was in hydrostatic equilibrium, but its shape became "frozen in" and did not change as Quaoar spun down due totidal forces from its moon Weywot.[7]: 10 This would resemble the situation of Saturn's moonIapetus, which is too oblate for its current rotation rate.[50]
Quaoar has a mass of1.2×1021 kg, which was determined from Weywot's orbit usingKepler's third law.[14] Measurements of Quaoar's diameter and mass as of 2024[update] indicate it has a density between1.66–1.77 g/cm3, which suggests its interior is composed of roughly 70% rock and 30% ice with lowporosity.[7]: 10–11 Quaoar's density was previously thought to be much higher, between2–4 g/cm3, because early measurements inaccurately suggested that Quaoar had a smaller diameter and a higher mass.[7]: 10 These early high-density estimates for Quaoar led researchers to hypothesize that the object might be a rockyplanetary core exposed by a largeimpact event, but these hypotheses have since become obsolete as newer estimates indicate a lower density for Quaoar.[46]: 1550 [7]: 10
Quaoar has a dark surface that reflects about 12% of the visible light it receives from the Sun.[14] This may indicate that fresh ice has disappeared from Quaoar's surface.[46] The surface is moderately red, meaning that Quaoar reflects longer (redder) wavelengths of light more than shorter (bluer) wavelengths.[51] Many Kuiper belt objects such as20000 Varuna and28978 Ixion share a similar moderately red color.
Spectroscopic observations byDavid Jewitt andJane Luu in 2004 revealed signs of crystalline waterice andammonia hydrate on Quaoar's surface. These substances are expected to gradually break down due to solar and cosmic radiation, and crystalline water ice can only form in warm temperatures of at least 110 K (−163 °C), so the presence of crystalline water ice on Quaoar's surface indicates that it was heated to this temperature sometime in the last ten million years.[51]: 731 For context, Quaoar's present-day surface temperature is less than 50 K (−223.2 °C).[51]: 732 Jewitt and Luu proposed two hypotheses for Quaoar's heating, which areimpact events andradiogenic heating.[51]: 731 The latter hypothesis allows for the possibility ofcryovolcanism on Quaoar, which is supported by the presence of ammonia hydrate on Quaoar's surface.[51]: 733 Ammonia hydrate is believed to be cryovolcanically deposited onto Quaoar's surface.[51]: 733 A 2006 study by Hauke Hussmann and collaborators suggested that radiogenic heating alone may not be capable of sustaining aninternal ocean of liquid water at Quaoar's mantle–core boundary.[52]
More precise observations of Quaoar's nearinfrared spectrum in 2007 indicated the presence of small quantities (5%) of solidmethane andethane. Given itsboiling point of 112 K (−161 °C), methane is a volatile ice at average surface temperatures of Quaoar, unlike water ice or ethane. Both models and observations suggest that only a few larger bodies (Pluto,Eris andMakemake) can retain the volatile ices whereas the dominant population of smalltrans-Neptunian objects lost them. Quaoar, with only small amounts of methane, appears to be in an intermediary category.[32]
In 2022, low-resolution near-infrared (0.7–5 μm)spectroscopic observations by theJames Webb Space Telescope (JWST) revealed the presence ofcarbon dioxide ice, complex organics, and significant amounts ofethane ice on Quaoar's surface. Other possible chemical compounds includehydrogen cyanide andcarbon monoxide.[53]: 4 JWST also took medium-resolution near-infrared spectra of Quaoar and found evidence of small amounts ofmethane on Quaoar's surface. However, both JWST's low- and medium-resolution spectra of Quaoar did not show conclusive signs of ammonia hydrates.[53]: 10
The presence of methane and othervolatiles on Quaoar's surface suggest that it may support a tenuousatmosphere produced from thesublimation of volatiles.[15] With a measured mean temperature of approximately 44 K (−229.2 °C), the upper limit of Quaoar'satmospheric pressure is expected to be in the range of a fewmicrobars.[15] Due to Quaoar's small size and mass, the possibility of Quaoar having an atmosphere ofnitrogen andcarbon monoxide has been ruled out, since the gases would escape from Quaoar.[15] The possibility of a methane atmosphere, with the upper limit being less than 1 microbar,[48][15] was considered until 2013, when Quaoarocculted a 15.8-magnitude star and revealed no sign of a substantial atmosphere, placing an upper limit to at least 20 nanobars, under the assumption that Quaoar's mean temperature is 42 K (−231.2 °C) and that its atmosphere consists of mostly methane.[48][15] The upper limit of atmosphere pressure was tightened to 10 nanobars after another stellar occultation in 2019.[54]
Quaoar has one known moon,Weywot (full designation(50000) Quaoar I Weywot), discovered in 2006 and named after the sky godWeywot, son of Quaoar.[21][55] It orbits Quaoar at distance of about 13,300 km and is thought to be approximately 170 km (110 mi) in diameter.[56]
Light curve graph of a star's brightness as seen by theGemini North Observatory during the 9 August 2022 occultation by Quaoar and its two rings. The asymmetry of the outer Q1R ring's opacity is apparent from its differing brightness dips before and after the occultation by Quaoar at the center.
Besides accurately determining sizes and shapes, stellar occultation campaigns were planned on a long-term basis to search for rings and/or atmospheres around small bodies of the outer solar system. These campaigns agglomerated efforts of various teams in France, Spain and Brazil and were conducted under the umbrella of theEuropean Research Council projectLucky Star.[12] The discovery of Quaoar's first known ring, Q1R, involved various instruments used during stellar occultations observed between 2018 and 2021: the robotic ATOM telescope of theHigh Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) in Namibia, the 10.4-mGran Telescopio Canarias (La Palma Island, Spain); the ESACHEOPS space telescope, and several stations run by citizen astronomers in Australia where a report of a Neptune-like ring originated and a dense arc in Q1R was first observed.[12][57][58] Taken together, these observations reveal the presence of a partly dense, mostly tenuous and uniquely distant ring around Quaoar, a discovery announced in February 2023.[12][57]
In April 2023, astronomers of theLucky Star project published the discovery of another ring of Quaoar, Q2R.[14] The Q2R ring was detected by the highly-sensitive 8.2-mGemini North and the 4.0-mCanada-France-Hawaii Telescope in Mauna Kea, Hawaii, during an observing campaign to confirm Quaoar's Q1R ring in a stellar occultation on 9 August 2022.[14] Quaoar is the fourth minor planet known and confirmed to have aring system, after10199 Chariklo,2060 Chiron, andHaumea.[12][f]
Quaoar possesses two narrow rings, provisionally named Q1R and Q2R by order of discovery, which are confined at radial distances where their orbital periods are integer ratios of Quaoar's rotational period. That is, the rings of Quaoar are inspin-orbit resonances.[14]
The outer ring, Q1R, orbits Quaoar at a distance of 4,057 ± 6 km (2,521 ± 4 mi), over seven times the radius of Quaoar and more than double the theoretical maximum distance of theRoche limit.[14] The Q1R ring is not uniform and is strongly irregular around its circumference, being more opaque (and denser) where it is narrow and less opaque where it is broader.[12] The Q1R ring's radial width ranges from 5 to 300 km (3 to 200 mi) while itsoptical depth ranges from 0.004 to 0.7.[14] The irregular width of the Q1R ring resemblesSaturn's frequently-perturbedF ring orNeptune'sring arcs, which may imply the presence of small, kilometer-sizedmoonlets embedded within the Q1R ring and gravitationally perturbing the material. The Q1R ring likely consists of icy particles thatelastically collide with each other withoutaccreting into a larger mass.[12]
Q1R is located in between the 6:1mean-motion orbital resonance with Quaoar's moon Weywot at 4,021 ± 57 km (2,499 ± 35 mi) and Quaoar's 1:3 spin-orbit resonance at 4,197 ± 58 km (2,608 ± 36 mi). The Q1R ring's coincidental location at these resonances implies they play a key role in maintaining the ring without having it accrete into a single moon.[12] In particular, the confinement of rings to the 1:3 spin-orbit resonance may be common among ringed small Solar System bodies, as it has been previously seen in Chariklo and Haumea.[12]
The inner ring, Q2R, orbits Quaoar at a distance of 2,520 ± 20 km (1,566 ± 12 mi), about four and a half times Quaoar's radius and also outside Quaoar's Roche limit.[14] The Q2R ring's location coincides with Quaoar's 5:7 spin-orbit resonance at 2,525 ± 58 km (1,569 ± 36 mi). Compared to Q1R, the Q2R ring appears relatively uniform with a radial width of 10 km (6.2 mi). With an optical depth of 0.004, the Q2R ring is very tenuous and its opacity is comparable to the least dense part of the Q1R ring.[14]
It has been calculated that a flyby mission to Quaoar using a Jupiter gravity assist would take 13.6 years, for launch dates of 25 December 2026, 22 November 2027, 22 December 2028, 22 January 2030 and 20 December 2040. Quaoar would be 41 to 43 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrived.[59] In July 2016, theLong Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) aboard theNew Horizons spacecraft took a sequence of four images of Quaoar from a distance of about 14 AU.[60]Interstellar Probe, a concept by Pontus Brandt and his colleagues at Johns HopkinsApplied Physics Laboratory would potentially fly by Quaoar in the 2030s before continuing to theinterstellar medium, and it has been proposed as a potential flyby target of the first ofChina National Space Administration's proposedShensuo probes, which are designed to explore the heliosphere.[61][62][63] Quaoar has been chosen as a flyby target for missions like these particularly for itsescaping methane atmosphere and possible cryovolcanism, as well as its close proximity to theheliospheric nose.[61]
^abEllipsoidal dimensions in km is calculated from the volume equivalent diameter of1,090 km, axial ratios of a/b = 1.19 and b/c = 1.16 given by Kiss et al. (2024),[7] and the formula for thevolume of an ellipsoid,.
^System mass refers to the combined masses of Quaoar and Weywot.
^Morgado et al. (2023) give the outer ring's north pole direction in terms ofequatorial coordinates (α,δ) = (258.47°, +54.14°), whereα isright ascension andδ isdeclination.[12]: 3 Transforming these equatorial coordinates toecliptic coordinates givesλ ≈ 240.17° andβ ≈ +76.38°.[13] Theecliptic latitude,β, is the angular offset from theecliptic plane, whereasinclinationi with respect to the ecliptic is the angular offset from theecliptic north pole atβ = +90° ;i with respect to the ecliptic would be thecomplement ofβ, which is expressed by the differencei = 90° –β. Thus, the axial tilt of Quaoar's outer ring is 13.62° with respect to the ecliptic. If the outer ring is coplanar to Quaoar's equator (having the same north pole orientation), then Quaoar would have the same axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic.
^Pereira et al. (2023) give the outer ring's north pole direction in terms ofequatorial coordinates (α,δ) = (17h 19m 16s, +53° 27′), whereα isright ascension andδ isdeclination.[14]: 4 Converting these equatorial coordinates from sexagesimal to decimal degrees gives (α,δ) = (259.82°, +53.45°). Then,transforming these equatorial coordinates toecliptic coordinates givesλ ≈ 64.26° (ecliptic longitude) andβ ≈ +75.98° (ecliptic latitude).[13] Subtracting this value ofβ from +90° gives the inclination of Quaoar's outer ring with respect to the ecliptic:i = 90° –β ≈ 14.02°. If the outer ring is coplanar to Quaoar's equator (having the same north pole orientation), then Quaoar would have the same axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic.
^In the convention for minor planet provisional designations, the first letter represents the half-month of the year of discovery while the second letter and numbers indicate the order of discovery within that half-month. In the case for2002 LM60, the first letter 'L' corresponds to the first half-month of June 2002 while the preceding letter 'M' indicates that it is the 12th object discovered on the 61st cycle of discoveries (with 60 cycles completed). Each completed cycle consists of 25 letters representing discoveries, hence 12 + (60 completed cycles × 25 letters) = 1,512.[33]
^2060 Chiron's rings were initially observed in 2011, and were confirmed by 2022
^abJPL HorizonsArchived 9 May 2021 at theWayback Machine Observer Location: @sun (Perihelion occurs when deldot changes from negative to positive. Uncertainty in time of perihelion is3-sigma.)
^Braga-Ribas, F.; Vachier, F.; Desmars, J.; Margoti, G.; Sicardy, B. (February 2025). "Investigating the formation of small Solar System objects using stellar occultations by satellites: present, future and its use to update satellite orbits".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A.383 (2291): 22.arXiv:2503.00874.Bibcode:2025RSPTA.38340200B.doi:10.1098/rsta.2024.0200.PMID40013567.S2CID276645375.
^ab"Coordinate Transformation & Galactic Extinction Calculator".NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. California Institute of Technology.Archived from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved11 February 2023. Equatorial → Ecliptic, J2000 for equinox and epoch. NOTE: When inputting equatorial coordinates, specify the units in the format "54.14d" instead of "54.14".
^abBelskaya, Irina N.; Barucci, Maria A.; Fulchignoni, Marcello; Lazzarin, M. (April 2015). "Updated taxonomy of trans-neptunian objects and centaurs: Influence of albedo".Icarus.250:482–491.Bibcode:2015Icar..250..482B.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.12.004.
^abcdMarsden, Brian G. (7 October 2002)."MPEC 2002-T34 : 2002 LM60".Minor Planet Electronic Circular. Minor Planet Center.Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved8 January 2020.
^"A Cold New World".NASA Science. NASA. 7 October 2002.Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved8 January 2020.
^Marsden, Brian G. (28 September 2004)."MPEC 2004-S73 : Editorial Notice".Minor Planet Electronic Circular. Minor Planet Center.Archived from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved8 January 2020.
^ab"M.P.C. 47066"(PDF).Minor Planet Center. International Astronomical Union. 20 November 2002.Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved4 December 2019.
^"M.P.C. 41805"(PDF).Minor Planet Center. International Astronomical Union. 9 January 2001.Archived(PDF) from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved15 March 2019.
^Levison, Harold F.; Morbidelli, Alessandro; Van Laerhoven, Christa; Gomes, Rodney S.; Tsiganis, Kleomenis (July 2008). "Origin of the Structure of the Kuiper Belt during a Dynamical Instability in the Orbits of Uranus and Neptune".Icarus.196 (1):258–273.arXiv:0712.0553.Bibcode:2008Icar..196..258L.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.11.035.S2CID7035885.
^Fornasier, S.; Lellouch, E.; Müller, T.; Santos-Sanz, P.; Panuzzo, P.; Kiss, C.; et al. (July 2013). "TNOs are Cool: A survey of the trans-Neptunian region. VIII. Combined Herschel PACS and SPIRE observations of nine bright targets at 70–500 μm".Astronomy & Astrophysics.555 (A15): 22.arXiv:1305.0449v2.Bibcode:2013A&A...555A..15F.doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321329.S2CID119261700.
^Brown, Michael E."The Dwarf Planets". California Institute of Technology.Archived from the original on 29 January 2008. Retrieved27 February 2018.
^Castillo-Rogez, J. C; Matson, D. L.; Sotin, C.; Johnson, T. V.; Lunine, J. I.; Thomas, P. C. (September 2007). "Iapetus' geophysics: Rotation rate, shape, and equatorial ridge".Icarus.190 (1):179–202.Bibcode:2007Icar..190..179C.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.02.018.
^Hussmann, Hauke; Sohl, Frank; Spohn, Tilman (November 2006). "Subsurface oceans and deep interiors of medium-sized outer planet satellites and large trans-neptunian objects".Icarus.185 (1):258–273.Bibcode:2006Icar..185..258H.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.06.005.
^abEmery, J. P.; Wong, I.; Brunetto, R.; Cook, R.; Pinilla-Alonso, N.; Stansberry, J. A.; et al. (March 2024). "A Tale of 3 Dwarf Planets: Ices and Organics on Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar from JWST Spectroscopy".Icarus.414 (116017).arXiv:2309.15230.Bibcode:2024Icar..41416017E.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116017.
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