Roman emperorHadrian (reigned 117–138) is said to have considered a division of the overly large province of Syria in 123–124 AD, but it was not until shortly afterc. 194 AD thatSeptimius Severus (r. 193–211) actually undertook this, dividing the province intoSyria Coele in the north andPhoenice in the south.[1] The province was much larger than the area traditionally calledPhoenicia: for example, cities likeEmesa[a] andPalmyra[b] and the base of theLegio III Gallica[c] inRaphanaea[d] were now subject to governor in Tyre. Veterans of this military unit were settled in Tyre, which also received the rank ofcolonia.[2]
By creating the province of Phoenicia, Septimius Severus revived the Phoenician identity. His restoration of the ancient regional name seems to come from a deep pride in his own origin from the regions ofDido in Africa andhis wife’s roots in Phoenicia.[3]
Marble head of the emperor Septimius Severus, from Tyre, on display at the National Museum of Beirut.
After the death of the 2nd century Roman emperorCommodus, a civil war erupted, in whichBerytus, andSidon supportedPescennius Niger. While the city ofTyre supported Septimius Severus, which led Niger to sendMauri[e]javelin men and archers to sack the city.[4] However, Niger lost the civil war, and Septimius Severus decided to show his gratitude for Tyre's support by making it the capital of Phoenice. Berytus was permitted to maintain its status as a Roman colony but lost the territory of Heliopolis, which was established as a separate colony.Ulpian, a native of Tyre, states that the grant of colonial status to Heliopolis resulted from this civil war.[5]
Roman emperor Commodus dies on 31 December 192,[11] leading to a war of succession, in which each Lebanese city took side of either Septimius Severus or Pescennius Niger.
Athletic competitions following the classical model persisted in the region during the second century AD, taking place in public venues such as gymnasiums. An athlete fromAphrodisias inCaria, in 165 AD, recorded his victories, listing events in various Phoenician cities: the men’spankration in Berytus, the men’s pankration in Tyre, and the men’s pankration in Hieropolis.[15]
Hadrian's inscriptions of boundary stones, Lebanon.
The first attempt to conserve theLebanese cedar was made during the 2nd century by the Roman emperor Hadrian; he created an imperial forest and ordered it marked by inscribedboundary stones, two of which are in the museum of theAmerican University of Beirut.[16] Material finds of this early type of wildlife conservation is provided by 200 inscriptions engraved on rocks all over the northern part ofMount Lebanon.[17]
Based on literary evidence, by the early second century AD, Berytus featured various public structures, including halls, porticoes, temples, marketplaces, a theater, an amphitheater, and baths. The buildings and streets were decorated with statues and sculptures.[15]
Temple of Bacchus, Baalbek.
Triumphal arch of Tyre.
The Tyre Hippodrome.
The Exedra around the Great Court, Roman Heliopolis.
Numerous 2nd century small temples and other sanctuaries in the vicinity of the temple district of Heliopolis, today's Baalbek, on the edge of theBekaa.[20]
^Southern, Pat.The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001, p. 33
^Krause, Günter (1985).Begleitheft zur Ausstellung Tyros, Hafenstadt Phöniziens. Duisburg-Ruhrort: Museum der Deutschen Binnenschifffahrt. pp. 1–5, 12–14.
^Service de communication, Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (2006-11-10)."Yanouh et le Nahr Ibrahim".Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (in French). Retrieved2010-08-14.
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Probus, Marcus Valerius".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 408.
