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TheBook of Enoch (also1 Enoch;[a]Hebrew: סֵפֶר חֲנוֹךְ,Sēfer Ḥănōḵ;Ge'ez:መጽሐፈ ሄኖክ,Maṣḥafa Hēnok) is anancient Jewishapocalyptic religious text, ascribed by tradition to thepatriarchEnoch who was the father ofMethuselah and the great-grandfather ofNoah.[1][2] The Book of Enoch contains unique material on the origins ofdemons andNephilim, why someangels fell from heaven, an explanation of why theGenesis flood was morally necessary, and a prophetic exposition of thethousand-year reign of the Messiah. Three books are traditionally attributed to Enoch, including the distinct works2 Enoch and3 Enoch.
1 Enoch is not considered to becanonical scripture by mostJewish orChristian church bodies, although it is part of the biblical canon used by the Ethiopian Jewish communityBeta Israel, as well as theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church andEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
The older sections of 1 Enoch are estimated to date from about 300–200 BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) is probably from around 100 BCE.[3] Scholars believe Enoch was originally written in eitherAramaic orHebrew, the languages first used for Jewish texts.Ephraim Isaac suggests that the Book of Enoch, like theBook of Daniel, was composed partially in Aramaic and partially in Hebrew.[4]: 6 No Hebrew version is known to have survived. Copies of the earlier sections of 1 Enoch were preserved in Aramaic among theDead Sea Scrolls in theQumran Caves.[2]
Authors of theNew Testament were also familiar with some content of the book.[5] A short section of 1 Enoch is cited in theEpistle of Jude,Jude 1:14–15, and attributed there to "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" (1 Enoch 60:8), although this section of 1 Enoch is amidrash onDeuteronomy 33:2, which was written long after the supposed time of Enoch. The full Book of Enoch survives in its entirety only in theGeʽez translation.
The first part of the Book of Enoch describes the fall of theWatchers, theangels who fathered the angel-human hybrids calledNephilim.[1] The remainder of the book describes Enoch's revelations and his visits to heaven in the form of travels, visions, and dreams.[2]
The book consists of five quite distinct major sections (see each section for details):[1]
Most scholars believe that these five sections were originally independent works[6] (with different dates of composition), themselves a product of much editorial arrangement, and were only laterredacted into what is now called 1 Enoch.[2] Because the Book of Parables is unattested in all except the Ethiopic manuscripts, and because a copy ofThe Book of Giants appears to be written on the same manuscript as a portion of Enoch, it seems likely that the former may have replaced the latter from the original Enochic Pentateuch.[7][8]
This first section of the Book of Enoch describes the fall of the Watchers, the angels who fathered the Nephilim (cf. thebene Elohim,Genesis 6:1–4) and narrates the travels of Enoch in the heavens. This section is said to have been composed in the 4th or 3rd century BC according to Western scholars.[9]
The introduction to the book of Enoch tells us that Enoch is "a righteous man, whose eyes were opened by God, saw the vision of the Holy One in the heavens, which the angels showed me, and from them I heard everything, and from them I understood as I saw, but not for this generation, but for a remote one which is for to come"[10]
It discussesGod coming toEarth onMount Sinai with His hosts to pass judgment on mankind. It also tells us about the luminaries rising and setting in the order and in their own time and never change:[11]
"Observe and see how (in the winter) all the trees seem as though they had withered and shed all their leaves, except fourteen trees, which do not lose their foliage but retain the old foliage from two to three years till the new comes."[12]
The book also discusses how all things are ordained by God and take place in his own time. The sinners shall perish and the great and the good shall live on in light, joy and peace.[citation needed]
And all His works go on thus from year to year for ever, and all the tasks which they accomplish for Him, and their tasks change not, but according as God hath ordained so is it done.
The first section of the book depicts the interaction of the fallen angels with mankind;Sêmîazâz compels the other 199 fallen angels to take human wives to "beget us children".
And Semjâzâ, who was their leader, said unto them: "I fear ye will not indeed agree to do this deed, and I alone shall have to pay the penalty of a great sin." And they all answered him and said: "Let us all swear an oath, and all bind ourselves by mutual imprecations not to abandon this plan but to do this thing." Then swore they all together and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it. And they were in all two hundred; who descended in the days of Jared on the summit ofMount Hermon, and they called it Mount Hermon, because they had sworn and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it.
The names of the leaders are given as "Samyaza (Shemyazaz), their leader,Araqiel,Râmêêl,Kokabiel,Tamiel,Ramiel,Dânêl,Chazaqiel,Baraqiel, Asael,Armaros,Batariel,Bezaliel,Ananiel,Zaqiel,Shamsiel,Satariel,Turiel,Yomiel,Sariel."
This results in the creation of theNephilim (Genesis) orAnakim / Anak (giants) as they are described in the book:
And they became pregnant, and they bare great giants, whose height was three hundredells:[b]Who consumed all the acquisitions of men. And when men could no longer sustain them, the giants turned against them and devoured mankind. And they began to sin against birds, and beasts, and reptiles, and fish, and to devour one another's flesh, and drink the blood.
It also discusses the teaching of humans by the fallen angels, chieflyAzâzêl:
And Azâzêl taught men to make swords, and knives, and shields, and breastplates, and made known to them the metals of the earth and the art of working them, and bracelets, and ornaments, and the use of antimony, and the beautifying of the eyelids, and all kinds of costly stones, and all colouring tinctures. And there arose much godlessness, and they committed fornication, and they were led astray, and became corrupt in all their ways. Semjâzâ taught enchantments, and root-cuttings, Armârôs the resolving of enchantments, Barâqîjâl, taught astrology, Kôkabêl the constellations, Ezêqêêl the knowledge of the clouds, Araqiêl the signs of the earth, Shamsiêl the signs of the sun, and Sariêl the course of the moon.
Michael,Uriel,Raphael, andGabriel appeal to God to judge the inhabitants of the world and the fallen angels.[13] Uriel is then sent by God to tell Noah of the comingcataclysm and what he needs to do.[2]
Then said the Most High, the Holy and Great One spoke, and sent Uriel to the son ofLamech, and said to him: Go toNoah and tell him in my name "Hide thyself!" and reveal to him the end that is approaching: that the whole earth will be destroyed, and a deluge is about to come upon the whole earth, and will destroy all that is on it. And now instruct him that he may escape and his seed may be preserved for all the generations of the world.
God commands Raphael to imprison Azâzêl:
[T]he Lord said to Raphael: "Bind Azâzêl hand and foot, and cast him into the darkness: And make an opening in the desert, which is in Dûdâêl (God's kettle / crucible / cauldron), and cast him therein. And place upon him rough and jagged rocks, and cover him with darkness, and let him abide there for ever, and cover his face that he may not see light. And on the day of the great judgement he shall be cast into the fire. And heal the earth which the angels have corrupted, and proclaim the healing of the earth, that they may heal the plague, and that all the children of men may not perish through all the secret things that the Watchers have disclosed and have taught their sons. And the whole earth has been corrupted through the works that were taught by Azâzêl: To him ascribe all sin."
God gave Gabriel instructions concerning the Nephilim and the imprisonment of the fallen angels:
And to Gabriel said the Lord: "Proceed against the biters and the reprobates, and against the children of fornication: and destroy [the children of fornication and] the children of the Watchers from amongst men [and cause them to go forth]: send them one against the other that they may destroy each other in battle ..."
The Lord commands Michael to bind the fallen angels.
And the Lord said unto Michael: "Go, bind Semjâzâ and his associates who have united themselves with women so as to have defiled themselves with them in all their uncleanness. 12. And when their sons have slain one another, and they have seen the destruction of their beloved ones, bind them fast for seventy generations in the valleys of the earth, till the day of their judgement and of their consummation, till the judgement that is for ever and ever is consummated. 13. In those days they shall be led off to the abyss of fire: (and) to the torment and the prison in which they shall be confined for ever. And whosoever shall be condemned and destroyed will from thenceforth be bound together with them to the end of all generations. ..."
Chapters 37–71 of the Book of Enoch are referred to as the 'Book of Parables'. The scholarly debate centers on these chapters. The Book of Parables appears to be based on the Book of the Watchers, but presents a later development of the idea of final judgment and ofeschatology, concerned not only with the destiny of the fallen angels but also that of the evil kings of the earth. The Book of Parables uses the expression"The Son of Man" for the eschatological protagonist, who is also called "Righteous One", "Chosen One", and "Messiah", and sits on the throne of glory in the final judgment.[14] The first known use of "Son of Man" as a definite title in Jewish writings is in 1 Enoch, and its use may have played a role in the early Christian understanding and use of the title.[1][2][15]
It has been suggested that the Book of Parables, in its entirety, is a later addition. Pointing to similarities with theSibylline Oracles and other earlier works, in 1976,J.T. Milik dated the Book of Parables to the third century. He believed that the events in the parables were linked to historic events dating from 260 to 270 AD.[16] According to this theory, these chapters were written in later Christian times by a Jewish Christian, to enhance Christian beliefs with Enoch's authoritative name.[1][2] Knibb[17] followed Milik's[18] reasoning, and suggested that because no fragments of chapters 37–71 were found at Qumran, a later date was likely. Knibb would continue this line of reasoning in later works.[19][20]: 417 In addition to being missing from Qumran, Chapters 37–71 are also missing from the Greek translation.[20]: 417 Currently no firm consensus has been reached among scholars as to the date of the writing of the Book of Parables. Milik's date of as late as 270 CE, however, has been rejected by most scholars. David W. Suter suggests that there is a tendency to date the Book of Parables to between 50 BCE – 117 CE.[20]: 415–416
In 1893,R. Charles judged Chapter 71 to be a later addition. He later changed his opinion[21]: 1 and gave an early date for the work between 94 and 64 BCE.[22]: LIV The 1906 article by Emil G. Hirsch in theJewish Encyclopedia states thatSon of Man is found in the Book of Enoch, but never in the original material. It occurs in the "Noachian interpolations" (lx. 10, lxxi. 14), wherein it has clearly no other meaning than 'man'.[23] The author of the work misuses or corrupts the titles of the angels.[22]: 16 Charles views the titleSon of Man, as found in the Book of Parables, as referring to a supernatural person, a Messiah who is not of human descent.[22]: 306–309 In that part of the Book of Enoch known as the Similitudes, it has the technical sense of a supernatural Messiah and judge of the world (xlvi. 2, xlviii. 2, lxx. 27); universal dominion and preexistence are predicated of him (xlviii. 2, lxvii. 6). He sits on God's throne (xlv. 3, li. 3), which is his own throne. Though Charles does not admit it, according toEmil G. Hirsch these passages betray Christian redaction and emendation.[23] A number of scholars[citation needed] have suggested that passages in the Book of Parables are Noachian interpolations. These passages seem to interrupt the flow of the narrative. Darrell D. Hannah suggests that these passages are not, in total, novel interpolations, but rather derived from an earlier Noah apocryphon. He believes that some interpolations refer to Herod the Great and should be dated to around 4 BCE.[20]: 472–477
In addition to the theory of Noachian interpolations, which perhaps a majority of scholars support, most scholars currently believe that Chapters 70–71 are a later addition in part or in whole.[20]: 76 [20]: 472–473 [24] Chapter 69 ends with, "This is the third parable of Enoch." Like Elijah, Enoch is generally thought to have been brought up to Heaven by God while still alive, but some have suggested that the text refers to Enoch as having died a natural death and ascending to Heaven. The Son of Man is identified with Enoch. The text implies that Enoch had previously been enthroned in heaven.[25] Chapters 70–71 seem to contradict passages earlier in the parable where the Son of Man is a separate entity. The parable also switches from third person singular to first person singular.[24] James H. Charlesworth rejects the theory that chapters 70–71 are later additions. He believes that no additions were made to the Book of Parables.[20]: 450–468 [21]: 1–12 In his earlier work, the implication is that a majority of scholars agreed with him.[26]
When J.T. Milik first proposed the late date of the Book of Parables, he proposed that the section had replaced an earlier work, theBook of Giants. The Book of Giants follows the giants, the children of the Watchers, who dream of the coming devastation and ask Enoch to interpret the dreams and to intercede for them. One of the recovered fragments of the Book of the Giants from Qumran was written by the same scribe who transcribed a portion of the Book of Enoch, and it is thought that they could belong to the same manuscript (4QEnGiantsaar and 4QEncar). Although it is not certain, this would make the Book of Giants the missing piece of Qumran's Enochic pentateuch, later replaced by the Book of Parables in the version of 1 Enoch that was translated into Ge’ez.[7][8]
37. Superscription and Introduction
| Months 1, 4, 7, 10 | Months 2, 5, 8, 11 | Months 3, 6, 9, 12 | |||||||||||||
| Wed | 1 | 8 | 15 | 22 | 29 | 6 | 13 | 20 | 27 | 4 | 11 | 18 | 25 | ||
| Thurs | 2 | 9 | 16 | 23 | 30 | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | 5 | 12 | 19 | 26 | ||
| Fri | 3 | 10 | 17 | 24 | 1 | 8 | 15 | 22 | 29 | 6 | 13 | 20 | 27 | ||
| Sat (Sabbath) | 4 | 11 | 18 | 25 | 2 | 9 | 16 | 23 | 30 | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | ||
| Sun | 5 | 12 | 19 | 26 | 3 | 10 | 17 | 24 | 1 | 8 | 15 | 22 | 29 | ||
| Mon | 6 | 13 | 20 | 27 | 4 | 11 | 18 | 25 | 2 | 9 | 16 | 23 | 30 | ||
| Tues | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | 5 | 12 | 19 | 26 | 3 | 10 | 17 | 24 | 31 | ||
Four fragmentary editions of the Astronomical Book were found at Qumran, 4Q208-211.[28] 4Q208 and 4Q209 have been dated to the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, providing aterminus ante quem for the Astronomical Book of the 3rd century BCE.[29] The fragments found in Qumran also include material not contained in the later versions of the Book of Enoch.[27][29][30]
This book contains descriptions of the movement of heavenly bodies and of thefirmament, as a knowledge revealed to Enoch in his trips to Heaven guided byUriel, and it describes aSolar calendar that was later described also in theBook of Jubilees which was used by the Dead Sea sect. The use of this calendar made it impossible to celebrate the festivals simultaneously with theTemple of Jerusalem.[1]
The year was composed of 364 days, divided into four equalseasons of 91 days each. Each season was composed of three equal months of thirty days, plus an extra day at the end of the third month. The whole year was thus composed of exactly 52 weeks, and every calendar day occurred always on the same day of the week. Each year and each season started always on Wednesday, which was the fourth day of thecreation narrated inGenesis, the day when the lights in the sky, the seasons, the days and the years were created.[27]: 94–95 It is not known how they used to reconcile this calendar with thetropical year of 365.24 days (at least seven suggestions have been made), and it is not even certain that they felt the need to adjust it.[27]: 125–140
Some interpret the words sun and stars in the text as referring to sunlight and starlight, allowing them to interpret the passage in a way that does not conflict greatly with the modern cosmological view. This interpretation is linguistically possible, since the Akkadian cognate of the Hebrew word for sun, šamšum, can mean sunlight or a day; thus, the term could be used to mean sunlight. Likewise, the Akkadian cognate of the Hebrew word for star, kakkabum, can refer to an object resembling a star or even a meteor—hence, the term could be used to mean starlight.
The Book of Dream Visions, containing avision of a history of Israel all the way down to what the majority have interpreted as the Maccabean Revolt, is dated by most to Maccabean times (about 163–142 BCE).
The second dream vision in this section of the Book of Enoch is an allegorical account of the history of Israel, that uses animals to represent human beings and human beings to represent angels.[1]
One of several hypothetical reconstructions of the meanings in the dream is as follows based on the works ofR. H. Charles andG. H. Schodde:
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There are multiple links between the first book and this one, including the outline of the story and the imprisonment of the leaders and destruction of the Nephilim. The dream includes sections relating to the Book of the Watchers:
And those seventy shepherds were judged and found guilty, and they were cast into that fiery abyss. And I saw at that time how a like abyss was opened in the midst of the earth, full of fire, and they brought those blinded sheep. (The fall of the evil ones)
And all the oxen feared them and were affrighted at them, and began to bite with their teeth and to devour, and to gore with their horns. And they began, moreover, to devour those oxen; and behold all the children of the earth began to tremble and quake before them and to flee from them. (The creation of the Nephilim et al.)
86:4, 87:3, 88:2, and 89:6 all describe the types of Nephilim that are created during the times described in The Book of the Watchers, though this does not mean that the authors of both books are the same. Similar references exist in Jubilees 7:21–22.
The book describes their release from theArk along with three bulls – white, red, and black, which are Shem, Ham, and Japheth – in 89:9. It also covers the death of Noah, described as the white bull, and the creation of a number of nations:
And they began to bring forth beasts of the field and birds, so that there arose different genera: lions, tigers, wolves, dogs, hyenas, wild boars, foxes, squirrels, swine, falcons, vultures, kites, eagles, and ravens (89:10)
It then describes the story of Moses and Aaron (89:13–15), including the miracle of the river splitting in two for them to pass, and the creation of the stone commandments. Eventually they arrived at a "pleasant and glorious land" (89:40) where they were attacked by dogs (Philistines), foxes (Ammonites, Moabites), and wild boars (Esau).
And that sheep whose eyes were opened saw that ram, which was amongst the sheep, till it forsook its glory and began to butt those sheep, and trampled upon them, and behaved itself unseemly. And the Lord of the sheep sent the lamb to another lamb and raised it to being a ram and leader of the sheep instead of that ram which had forsaken its glory. (David replacing Saul as leader of Israel)
It describes the creation ofSolomon's Temple and also the house which may be thetabernacle: "And that house became great and broad, and it was built for those sheep: (and) a tower lofty and great was built on the house for the Lord of the sheep, and that house was low, but the tower was elevated and lofty, and the Lord of the sheep stood on that tower and they offered a full table before Him". This interpretation is accepted by Dillmann (p. 262), Vernes (p. 89), and Schodde (p. 107). It also describes the escape ofElijah the prophet; in 1 Kings 17:2–24, he is fed by "ravens", so if Kings uses a similar analogy, he may have been fed by the Seleucids. "... saw the Lord of the sheep how He wrought much slaughter amongst them in their herds until those sheep invited that slaughter and betrayed His place." This describes the various tribes of Israel "inviting" in other nations "betraying his place" (i.e., the land promised to their ancestors by God).
This part of the book can be taken to be the kingdom splitting into the northern and southern tribes, that is, Israel and Judah, eventually leading to Israel falling to the Assyrians in 721 BCE and Judah falling to the Babylonians a little over a century later 587 BCE. "And He gave them over into the hands of the lions and tigers, and wolves and hyenas, and into the hand of the foxes, and to all the wild beasts, and those wild beasts began to tear in pieces those sheep"; God abandons Israel for they have forsaken him.
There is also mention of 59 of 70 shepherds with their own seasons; there seems to be some debate on the meaning of this section, some suggesting that it is a reference to the 70 appointed times in 25:11, 9:2, and 1:12. Another interpretation is the 70 weeks inDaniel 9:24. However, the general interpretation is that these are simply angels. This section of the book and another section near the end describe the appointment by God of the 70 angels to protect the Israelites from enduring too much harm from the "beasts and birds". The later section (110:14) describes how the 70 angels are judged for causing more harm to Israel than he desired, found guilty, and "cast into an abyss, full of fire and flaming, and full of pillars of fire."
"And the lions and tigers eat and devoured the greater part of those sheep, and the wild boars eat along with them; and they burnt that tower and demolished that house"; this represents the sacking of Solomon's temple and the tabernacle in Jerusalem by the Babylonians as they take Judah in 587–586 BCE, exiling the remaining Jews. "And forthwith I saw how the shepherds pastured for twelve hours, and behold three of those sheep turned back and came and entered and began to build up all that had fallen down of that house". "Cyrus allowedSheshbazzar, a prince from the tribe of Judah, to bring the Jews from Babylon back to Jerusalem. Jews were allowed to return with the Temple vessels that the Babylonians had taken. Construction of theSecond Temple began";[citation needed] this represents thehistory of ancient Israel and Judah; the temple was completed in 515 BCE.
The first part of the next section of the book seems, according to Western scholars, to clearly describe the Maccabean revolt of 167 BCE against theSeleucids.The following two quotes have been altered from their original form to make the hypothetical meanings of the animal names clear.
And I saw in the vision how the (Seleucids) flew upon those (faithful) and took one of those lambs, and dashed the sheep in pieces and devoured them. And I saw till horns grew upon those lambs, and the (Seleucids) cast down their horns; and I saw till there sprouted a great horn of one of those (faithful), and their eyes were opened. And it looked at them and their eyes opened, and it cried to the sheep, and the rams saw it and all ran to it. And notwithstanding all this those (Macedonians) and vultures and (Seleucids) and (Ptolemies) still kept tearing the sheep and swooping down upon them and devouring them: still the sheep remained silent, but the rams lamented and cried out. And those (Seleucids) fought and battled with it and sought to lay low its horn, but they had no power over it. (109:8–12)
All the (Macedonians) and vultures and (Seleucids) and (Ptolemies) were gathered together, and there came with them all the sheep of the field, yea, they all came together, and helped each other to break that horn of the ram. (110:16)
According to this theory, the first sentence most likely refers to the death of High Priest Onias III, whose murder is described in1 Maccabees 3:33–35 (died c. 171 BCE). The "great horn" clearly is notMattathias, the initiator of the rebellion, as he dies a natural death, described in1 Maccabees 2:49. It is also not Alexander the Great, as the great horn is interpreted as a warrior who has fought the Macedonians, Seleucids, and Ptolemies.Judas Maccabeus (167–160 BCE) fought all three of these, with a large number of victories against the Seleucids over a great period of time; "they had no power over it". He is also described as "one great horn among six others on the head of a lamb", possibly referring to Maccabeus's five brothers and Mattathias. If taken in context of the history from Maccabeus's time, Dillman Chrest Aethiop says the explanation of Verse 13 can be found in 1 Maccabees iii 7; vi. 52; v.; 2 Maccabees vi. 8 sqq., 13, 14; 1 Maccabees vii 41, 42; and 2 Maccabees x v, 8 sqq. Maccabeus was eventually killed by the Seleucids at the Battle of Elasa, where he faced "twenty thousand foot soldiers and two thousand cavalry". At one time, it was believed this passage might refer toJohn Hyrcanus; the only reason for this was that the time between Alexander the Great and John Maccabeus was too short. However, it has been asserted that evidence shows that this section does indeed discuss Maccabeus.
It then describes: "And I saw till a great sword was given to the sheep, and the sheep proceeded against all the beasts of the field to slay them, and all the beasts and the birds of the heaven fled before their face."This might be simply the "power of God": God was with them to avenge the death. It may also beJonathan Apphus taking over command of the rebels to battle on after the death of Judas. John Hyrcanus (Hyrcanus I, Hasmonean dynasty) may also make an appearance; the passage "And all that had been destroyed and dispersed, and all the beasts of the field, and all the birds of the heaven, assembled in that house, and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced with great joy because they were all good and had returned to His house" may describe John's reign as a time of great peace and prosperity. Certain scholars also claimAlexander Jannaeus of Judaea is alluded to in this book.
The end of the book describes the new Jerusalem, culminating in the birth of aMessiah:
And I saw that a white bull was born, with large horns and all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the air feared him and made petition to him all the time. And I saw till all their generations were transformed, and they all became white bulls; and the first among them became a lamb, and that lamb became a great animal and had great black horns on its head; and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced over it and over all the oxen.
Still another interpretation, which has just as much as credibility, is that the last chapters of this section simply refer to the infamous battle ofArmageddon, where all of the nations of the world march against Israel; this interpretation is supported by the War Scroll, which describes what this epic battle may be like, according to the group(s) that existed at Qumran.
This section can be seen as being made up of five subsections,[31] mixed by the final redactor:
The most extensive surviving early manuscripts of the Book of Enoch exist in theGeʽez language.Robert Henry Charles's critical edition of 1906 subdivides the Geʽez manuscripts into two families:
Familyα: thought to be more ancient and more similar to the earlier Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek versions:
Familyβ: more recent, apparently edited texts
Additionally, there are the manuscripts[which?] used by theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church for preparation of thedeuterocanonicals from Geʽez into thetargumicAmharic in thebilingual Haile Selassie Amharic Bible (Mashaf qeddus bage'ezenna ba'amaregna yatasafe 4 vols.c. 1935[when?]).[33]
ElevenAramaic-language fragments of the Book of Enoch were found in cave 4 ofQumran in 1948[34] and are in the care of theIsrael Antiquities Authority. They were translated for and discussed byJózef Milik andMatthew Black inThe Books of Enoch.[35] Other translations were released by Geza Vermes and by Garcia-Martinez.[36][37] Milik described the documents as being white or cream in color, blackened in areas, and made of leather that was smooth, thick and stiff. They were also partly damaged, with the ink blurred and faint.
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The 8th-century workChronographia Universalis by the Byzantine historianGeorge Syncellus preserved some passages of the Book of Enoch inGreek (6:1–9:4, 15:8–16:1). Other Greek fragments known are:
According to Elena Dugan, this Codex was written by two separate scribes and was previously misunderstood as containing errors. She suggests that the first scribe actually preserves a valuable text that is not erroneous. In fact the text preserves "a thoughtful composition, corresponding to the progression of Enoch's life and culminating in an ascent to heaven". The first scribe may have been working earlier, and was possibly unconnected to the second.[39]
It has been claimed that several small additional fragments in Greek have been found at Qumran (7QEnoch: 7Q4, 7Q8, 7Q10-13), dating about 100 BCE, ranging from 98:11? to 103:15[40] and written on papyrus with grid lines, but this identification is highly contested.
Portions of 1 Enoch were incorporated into the chronicle ofPanodoros (c. 400) and thence borrowed by his contemporaryAnnianos.[41]
A sixth- or seventh-century fragmentary manuscript contains aCoptic version of the Apocalypse of Weeks. How extensive the Coptic text originally was cannot be known. It agrees with the Aramaic text against the Ethiopic, but was probably derived from Greek.[42]
Of theLatin translation, only 1:9 and 106:1–18 are known. The first passage occurs in thePseudo-CyprianicAd Novatianum and thePseudo-VigilianContra Varimadum;[43] the second was discovered in 1893 byM. R. James in an 8th-century manuscript in theBritish Museum and published in the same year.[44]
The only surviving example of1 Enoch inSyriac is found in the 12th centuryChronicle ofMichael the Great. It is a passage from Book VI and is also known from Syncellus and papyrus. Michael's source appears to have been a Syriac translation of (part of) the chronicle of Annianos.[45]
Ephraim Isaac, the editor and translator of 1 Enoch inThe Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, writes that "1 Enoch is clearly composite representing numerous periods and writers". And that the dating of the various sections spans from early pre-Maccabean (i.e.c. 200 BCE) to 160 CE.[46] George W. E. Nickelsburg writes that "1 Enoch is a collection of Jewish apocalyptic traditions that date from the last three centuries before the common era".[47]
Paleographic analysis of the Enochic fragments found in the Qumran caves dates the oldest fragments of the Book of the Watchers to 200–150 BCE.[35] Since this work shows evidence of multiple stages of composition, it is probable that this work was already extant in the 3rd century BCE.[48] The same can be said about the Astronomical Book.[1]
Because of these findings, it was no longer possible to claim that the core of the Book of Enoch was composed in the wake of theMaccabean Revolt as a reaction toHellenization.[49]: 93 Scholars thus had to look for the origins of the Qumranic sections of 1 Enoch in theprevious historical period, and the comparison with traditional material of such a time showed that these sections do not draw exclusively on categories and ideas prominent in theHebrew Bible. David Jackson speaks even of an "Enochic Judaism" from which the writers of Qumran scrolls were descended.[50]Margaret Barker argues, "Enoch is the writing of a very conservative group whose roots go right back to the time of theFirst Temple".[51] The main peculiar aspects of this Enochic Judaism include:
Most Qumran fragments are relatively early, with none written from the last period of the Qumranic experience.[55]
The relation between 1 Enoch and theEssenes was noted even before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[56] While there is consensus to consider the sections of the Book of Enoch found in Qumran as texts used by the Essenes, the same is not so clear for the Enochic texts not found in Qumran (mainly the Book of Parables): it was proposed[32] to consider these parts as expression of the mainstream, but not-Qumranic, essenic movement. The main peculiar aspects of the not-Qumranic units of 1 Enoch are the following:
Classicalrabbinic literature is characterized by near silence concerning Enoch. It is possible that rabbinicpolemics against Enochic texts and traditions might have led to the fall from use of these books inRabbinic Judaism.[58]
However, the book of Enoch plays an important role in thehistory of Jewish mysticism: the scholarGershom Scholem wrote, "The main subjects of the laterMerkabah mysticism already occupy a central position in the older esoteric literature, best represented by theBook of Enoch."[59] Particular attention is paid to the detailed description of the throne of God included in chapter 14 of 1 Enoch.[1]
For the quotation from the Book of the Watchers in the New TestamentEpistle of Jude:
14 And Enoch also, the seventh from Adam, prophesied of these, saying, "Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thousand of His saints15 to execute judgment upon all, and to convince all who are ungodly among them of all their godless deeds which they have godlessly committed, and of all the harsh speeches which godless sinners have spoken against Him."
There is little doubt that 1 Enoch was influential in moldingNew Testament doctrines about theMessiah, theSon of Man, themessianic kingdom,demonology, theresurrection, andeschatology.[2][4]: 10 The limits of the influence of 1 Enoch are discussed at length by R.H. Charles,[60] Ephraim Isaac,[4] and G.W. Nickelsburg[61] in their respective translations and commentaries. It is possible that the earlier sections of 1 Enoch had direct textual and content influence on multipleBiblical apocrypha, such asJubilees,2 Baruch,2 Esdras,Apocalypse of Abraham and2 Enoch, though even in these cases, the connection is typically more branches of a common trunk than direct development.[62]
TheGreek text was known to, and quoted, both positively and negatively, by a number ofChurch Fathers: references can be found inJustin Martyr,Minucius Felix,Irenaeus,Origen,Cyprian,Hippolytus,Commodianus,Lactantius andCassian.[63]: 430 After Cassian and before the modern "rediscovery", some excerpts are given in theByzantine Empire by the 8th-century monkGeorge Syncellus in his chronography, and in the 9th century, it is listed as anapocryphon of the New Testament by PatriarchNicephorus.[64]
Sir Walter Raleigh, in hisHistory of the World (written in 1616 while imprisoned in the Tower of London), makes the curious assertion that part of the Book of Enoch "which contained the course of the stars, their names and motions" had been discovered inSaba (Sheba) in the first century and was thus available toOrigen andTertullian. He attributes this information to Origen,[c]although no such statement is found anywhere in extant versions of Origen.[66]
Outside ofEthiopia, the text of the Book of Enoch was considered lost until the beginning of the seventeenth century, when it was confidently asserted that the book was found in a Geʽez translation there, andNicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc bought a book that was claimed to be identical to the one quoted by the Epistle of Jude and the Church Fathers.Hiob Ludolf, the great Ethiopic scholar of the 17th and 18th centuries, soon claimed it to be a forgery produced byAbba Bahaila Michael.[67]
Better success was achieved by the famous Scottish travellerJames Bruce, who, in 1773, returned to Europe from six years inAbyssinia with three copies of a Geʽez version.[68] One is preserved in theBodleian Library, another was presented to theroyal library of France, while the third was kept by Bruce. The copies remained unused until the 19th century;Silvestre de Sacy, in "Notices sur le livre d'Enoch",[69] included extracts of the books with Latin translations (Enoch chapters 1, 2, 5–16, 22, and 32). From this a German translation was made by Rink in 1801.[citation needed]
The first English translation of the Bodleian / Ethiopic manuscript was published in 1821 byRichard Laurence.[70] Revised editions appeared in 1833, 1838, and 1842.
In 1838, Laurence also released the first Geʽez text of 1 Enoch published in the West, under the title:Libri Enoch Prophetae Versio Aethiopica. The text, divided into 105 chapters, was soon considered unreliable as it was the transcription of a single Geʽez manuscript.[71]
In 1833, ProfessorAndreas Gottlieb Hoffmann of the University ofJena released aGerman translation, based on Laurence's work, calledDas Buch Henoch in vollständiger Uebersetzung, mit fortlaufendem Kommentar, ausführlicher Einleitung und erläuternden Excursen. Two other translations came out around the same time: one in 1836 calledEnoch Restitutus, or an Attempt (Rev. Edward Murray) and one in 1840 calledProphetae veteres Pseudepigraphi, partim ex Abyssinico vel Hebraico sermonibus Latine bersi (A. F. Gfrörer). However, both are considered to be poor—the 1836 translation most of all—and is discussed in Hoffmann.[72][full citation needed]
The first critical edition, based on five manuscripts, appeared in 1851 asLiber Henoch, Aethiopice, ad quinque codicum fidem editus, cum variis lectionibus, byAugust Dillmann. It was followed in 1853 by a German translation of the book by the same author with commentary titledDas Buch Henoch, übersetzt und erklärt. It was considered the standard edition of 1 Enoch until the work of Charles.[citation needed]
The generation of Enoch scholarship from 1890 to World War I was dominated byRobert Henry Charles. His 1893 translation and commentary of the Geʽez text already represented an important advancement, as it was based on ten additional manuscripts. In 1906 R.H. Charles published a new critical edition of the Geʽez text, using 23 Geʽez manuscripts and all available sources at his time. The English translation of the reconstructed text appeared in 1912, and the same year in his collection ofThe Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament.[2]
The publication, in the early 1950s, of the first Aramaic fragments of 1 Enoch among the Dead Sea Scrolls profoundly changed the study of the document, as it provided evidence of its antiquity and original text. The official edition of all Enoch fragments appeared in 1976, byJozef Milik.[73][2]
The renewed interest in 1 Enoch spawned a number of other translations: in Hebrew (A. Kahana, 1956), Danish (Hammershaimb, 1956), Italian (Fusella, 1981), Spanish (1982), French (Caquot, 1984) and other modern languages. In 1978, a new edition of the Geʽez text was edited by Michael Knibb, with an English translation, while a new commentary appeared in 1985 by Matthew Black.[citation needed]
In 2001 George W.E. Nickelsburg published the first volume of a comprehensive commentary on 1 Enoch in the Hermeneia series.[52] Since the year 2000, theEnoch seminar has devoted several meetings to the Enoch literature and has become the center of a lively debate concerning the hypothesis that the Enoch literature attests the presence of an autonomous non-Mosaic tradition of dissent in Second Temple Judaism.[citation needed]
Jay Winter published his translation of the Ethiopian texts in hisComplete Book of Enoch, Standard English Version in 2015.[74]
Judging by the number of copies found in theDead Sea Scrolls, the Book of Enoch was widely read during theSecond Temple period. Today, the EthiopicBeta Israel community ofHaymanot Jews is the only Jewish group that accepts the Book of Enoch as canonical and still preserves it in itsliturgical language ofGeʽez, where it plays a central role in worship.[75] However, the Book of Enoch was excluded from both the formal canon of theTanakh and theSeptuagint and therefore, also from the writings known today as theDeuterocanon.[76][77] Possible reasons for Enoch's exclusion from the canon ofRabbinic Judaism include that its teachings onfallen angels and the corruptibility of man did not accord with orthodox Jewish teaching. Its focus onmystical andapocolyptic themes rather than legal and ethical concerns also differs from Rabbinic Judaism.[78]
While books like Enoch were fully accepted by the Qumran community, the later rabbis treated them with suspicion and saw them as inauthentic,
By the fifth century, the Book of Enoch was mostly excluded fromChristian biblical canons, and it is now regarded asscripture only by theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[80][81][82]
"Enoch, the seventh from Adam" is quoted inJude 1:14–15:
Compare this with Enoch 1:9, translated from the Ethiopic (also found inQumran scroll 4Q204=4QEnochc ar, col I 16–18):[83][57]
Compare this also with what may be the original source of1 Enoch 1:9 in Deuteronomy 33:2: In "He cometh with ten thousands of His holy ones". According to Charles (1912), this "... text reproduces theMasoretic of Deuteronomy 33 in readingאָתָא = ἔρχεται, whereas the threeTargums, the Syriac andVulgate readאִתֹּה, =μετ' αὐτοῦ. Here, the Septuagint diverges wholly.[84] The readingאתא is recognized as original. The writer of 1–5, therefore, used the Hebrew text and presumably wrote in Hebrew."[85][d][e]
Deut 33:2 (English Standard Version [ESV] translation) The Lord came from Sinai and dawned from Seir upon us; he shone forth from Mount Paran; he came from the ten thousands of Saints, with flaming fire at his right hand.
Other English translations of this passage vary widely.[88]
According toJohn Barton, under the heading of canonicity, it is not enough to merely demonstrate that something is quoted. Instead, it is necessary to demonstrate the nature of the quotation.[89]
In the case of the Jude 1:14 quotation of1 Enoch 1:9, it would be difficult to argue that Jude does not quote Enoch as a historical prophet since he cites Enoch by name. However, there remains a question as to whether the author of Jude attributed the quotation believing the source to be the historical Enoch before the flood or as a midrash of Deuteronomy 33:2–3.[91][92][93] The Greek text might seem unusual in stating that "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" prophesied "to" (dative case) not "of" (genitive case) the men. However, this Greek grammar might indicate the meaning "against them" – the dativeτούτοις as a dative of disadvantage (dativus incommodi).[f]
Davids (2006)[95] points to Dead Sea Scrolls evidence but leaves it open as to whether Jude viewed 1 Enoch as canon, deuterocanon, or otherwise: "Did Jude, then, consider this scripture to be like Genesis or Isaiah? Certainly he did consider it authoritative, a true word from God. We cannot tell whether he ranked it alongside other prophetic books such as Isaiah and Jeremiah. What we do know is, first, that other Jewish groups, most notably those living in Qumran near the Dead Sea, also used and valued 1 Enoch, but we do not find it grouped with the scriptural scrolls."[95]
The attribution "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" is apparently itself a section heading taken from 1 Enoch (1 Enoch 60:8, Jude 1:14a) and not from Genesis.[90][full citation needed]
Enoch is referred to directly in theEpistle to the Hebrews. The epistle mentions that Enoch received testimony from God before his translation,[96] which may be a reference to 1 Enoch.
It has also been alleged that theFirst Epistle of Peter (1 Peter 3:19–20) and theSecond Epistle of Peter (2 Peter 2:4–5) make reference to some Enochian material.[97] Other references also include Jude 1:6,[98] andFirst Corinthians (1 Corinthians 11:10), according toHeinrich August Wilhelm Meyer.[99]
The Book of Enoch was considered as scripture in theEpistle of Barnabas (4:3)[100] and by some of the earlyChurch Fathers, such asAthenagoras,[101]Clement of Alexandria,[102] andTertullian,[103] who wrote c. 200 that the Jews had rejected the Book of Enoch because it purportedly contained prophecies aboutJesus.[104]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not consider 1 Enoch to be part of itsstandard canon, although it believes that a purported "original" Book of Enoch was an inspired book.[105] TheBook of Moses, first published in the 1830s by this church, is part of its standard works and has a section that claims to contain extracts from the "original" Book of Enoch. This section has a number of similarities to 1 Enoch and other Enoch texts, including2 Enoch,3 Enoch, andThe Book of Giants.[106]The Enoch section of the Book of Moses is believed by the Church to contain extracts from "the ministry, teachings, and visions of Enoch", though it does not contain the entire Book of Enoch itself. The Church considers the portions of the other texts that match its Enoch excerpts to be inspired while not rejecting but withholding judgment on the remainder.[107][108][109]
Some of the fallen angels that are given in 1 Enoch have other names, such asRameel ('morning of God'), who becomesAzazel, and is also calledGadriel ('wall of God') in Chapter 68. Another example is thatAraqiel ('Earth of God') becomesAretstikapha ('world of distortion') in Chapter 68.
Azaz, as inAzazel, means strength, so the nameAzazel can refer to 'strength of God'. This is also a key point in modern thought that Azazel was one of Lucifer’s chief leaders of the revolt against God.[1][2]
Nathaniel Schmidt states, "the names of the angels apparently refer to their condition and functions before the fall," and lists the likely meanings of the angels' names in the Book of Enoch, noting that "the great majority of them are Aramaic."[110]
The name suffix-el comes from the Hebrew text and the Lord’s name Emmanuel, (seelist of names referring to El), and is used in the names of high-ranking angels. The archangels' names all include-el, such asUriel ('flame of God') andMichael ('who is like God').[111]
Gadreel (Hebrew:גדר האל,romanized: Gader ha-el,lit. 'Wall of God') is listed as one of the chiefs of the fallenWatchers. He is said to have been responsible for deceivingEve.[112][113] Schmidt lists the name as meaning 'the helper of God.'[110]
Enochic studies have traditionally been historical, focusing on the meanings of the text for its ancient audiences. 1 Enoch counts as Old Testament scripture in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and has played a significant role in its theology, especially via theandemta tradition of interpretation.[114] In 2015 a group of scholars from Ethiopia and other countries held meetings in Ethiopia and the UK to explore the significance of Enoch for contemporary theology. The initial outcome was a collection of essays published in 2017 on various theological topics, including justice, political theology, the environment, the identity of the Son of Man, suffering and evil.[115]
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link);Nickelsburg, GW. (2004).1 Enoch: A Commentary. Minneapolis: Fortress. pp. 7–8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)... Ethiopian scholars who produced the targumic Amharic version of 1 Enoch printed in the great bilingual Bible of Emperor Haile Selassi.
with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, Plato, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Talmud, Old Testament, Patristic Writings, Dhammapada, Tacitus, Epic of Gilgamesh
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)an apocryphal production, supposed to have been lost for ages; but discovered at the close of the last century in Abyssinia; now first translated from an Ethiopic manuscript in the Bodleian Library.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)with special reference to the Armenian tradition
Book of Enoch public domain audiobook atLibriVox (Robert Charles translation)
