 |
| Part of a series on |
| 1980 Summer Olympics |
|---|
|
TheUnited States led the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott to protest against theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan. More than 60 countries joined the boycott to varying degrees,[1] affecting athletes, fans, and international relations. The absence of so many competitors changed the outcomes of some events, led to alternative competitions, and influenced the 1984 Olympics, which the Soviets later boycotted.[2] TheSoviet Union, which hosted the1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, and itssatellite states laterboycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics inLos Angeles.
The Western governments first considered boycotting the Moscow 1980 Summer Olympics after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, discussing it at a December 20, 1979,NATO meeting.[3] Earlier in the mid-1970s, human rights groups had proposed Olympic boycotts to pressure the Soviet Union over human rights violations, but interest was limited.[4] The idea gained traction when Soviet dissidentAndrei Sakharov called for a boycott in early January 1980.[5] PresidentJimmy Carter joined the appeal, setting a deadline for the Soviet withdrawal or warning of potential consequences, including a U.S. led Olympic boycott.[4]Canada also announced it would join the boycott if Soviet forces did not leave Afghanistan by February 20, 1980.[6] Carter proposed moving the Olympics toGreece permanently to avoid politicization, but the IOC rejected the idea.[7]
The boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics occurred against the background of heightenedCold War tensions following theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. The United States government stated that participation in the Moscow Games conflicted with international opposition to the Soviet military intervention.[8] PresidentJimmy Carter linked the question of Olympic participation to the U.S. response to the invasion of Afghanistan.[9]
In January 1980, President Carter announced that the United States would boycott the Moscow Olympics unless Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan. The announcement prompted debate within the U.S. government, Congress, and theUnited States Olympic Committee, particularly regarding the consequences for athletes who had qualified for the Games.[10]
The United States subsequently encouraged allied and non-aligned countries to support the boycott. Some governments agreed to withdraw their teams, while others declined or adopted partial measures, resulting in varying levels of participation at the Games.[11] As part of these efforts, former heavyweight boxing championMuhammad Ali undertook diplomatic visits to several African countries at the request of the Carter administration to advocate support for the boycott.[12]
The Soviet government rejected calls to cancel or relocate the Games and continued preparations for the Moscow Olympics. Soviet officials described the boycott as political interference in sport and responded through diplomatic channels and state media.[9]
Diplomatic discussions involving the United States, theInternational Olympic Committee (IOC), and other governments took place in the months preceding the Games, but these did not result in a change to the U.S. decision to boycott.[8]
The International Olympic Committee opposed the boycott, maintaining that the Olympic Games should remain independent of political disputes and expressing concern about the impact on athletes. The IOC did not formally sanction either participating or boycotting nations; however, it permitted athletes from some boycotting countries to compete under the Olympic flag rather than their national flags, subject to decisions made by individual national Olympic committees.[8]
The boycott had a major impact on athletes, many of whom had trained their entire lives for the Olympics.[13] Some participated in alternative events such as theLiberty Bell Classic, which could not match the prestige of the actual Olympics.[14] The absence of top competitors changed event outcomes and the overall competition landscape.[15]
Some athletes competed despite their governments’ official stance, often under neutral flags. These examples show how personal ambition sometimes clashed with political pressure, resulting in a complex and uneven participation landscape.[5] President of the IOCLord Killanin permitted National Olympic Committee (NOC)-qualified athletes to compete at the Games without their national flags or anthems (which allowedNOCs to send athletes in a non-national context), but this did not allow other individuals lackingNOC sanction to participate in the Games, as this was perceived by theIOC as a potential weakening of their authority.[16] Four competitors (including one athlete) fromNew Zealand competed independently and marched under theirNOC flag because the government officially supported the boycott.[17] The athletes of 16 countries did not fly their national flags. Instead, Olympic flags were raised, and theOlympic Anthem replaced theirnational anthems at the medal ceremonies. There was one awards ceremony where three Olympic flags were raised, that being themen's individual pursuit in cycling.
At the opening ceremony'sParade of Nations, the 16 partially boycotting countries sent only a flag-bearer to march after the placard-bearer, without the rest of the delegation following the flag-bearer.[18]
Traditionally, the mayor of the previous host city (Montreal, Canada) hands over the Olympic flag, but Montreal MayorJean Drapeau was prevented from attending due to the boycott.Sandra Henderson andStéphane Préfontaine, the final torchbearers at the previous games, participated in his place.
Closing ceremony protocol rules dictated that the flag of the next host should be raised, but the United States "strongly objected" to the IOC's plans to enforce this rule.[19] During the83rd IOC Session just before the Games, IOC DirectorMonique Berlioux discovered a "loophole" where the French and English versions of the rules differed; one version stated to use the flag of the "country of the organizing city," while the other stated to use the flag of the "organizing city." Berlioux as well as Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee headPeter Ueberroth agreed to use theLos Angeles city flag instead.[20] TheOlympic hymn was played in place of theUnited States national anthem.[21]
TheAntwerp flag was received by an IOC member from the United States instead of the mayor of Los Angeles,Tom Bradley; there was no handover to Los Angeles ceremony at the closing.
Many athletes who had trained their entire lives were deeply affected by the boycott. SwimmerJesse Vassallo reflected on the missed opportunity, recalling a conversation with President Jimmy Carter: “How would you have done in Moscow?” Vassallo answered, “I would have won two golds and a silver.” He remembered Carter’s pained reaction, highlighting the personal frustration of athletes sidelined for political reasons.[22]
At least five national teams participated at the Games under the Olympic flag rather than their respective national or NOC flags, as doing the latter would have denoted that their participation was officially sanctioned by their respective nations:[23]
While the political impact of the boycott was limited, it left a lasting impression on athletes and international sport.[24] Many athletes expressed frustration and disappointment, and the decision is often debated as a controversial political move.[25]
In April 1981, a Federal District court in Manhattan approved the settlement of two suits involving more than 9,000 Americans who were seeking refunds of payments they had made for trips to the Olympics that were canceled in wake of the boycott.
When the boycott was first announced, tour deposits of over 10 million dollars were refunded by the Russian Travel Bureau, the only agency authorized to book American tours during the Olympics. Although the Soviet Union kept about $7.2 million collected by the Bureau, they had agreed to set aside $1.8 million as credits to be paid back over five years.
Under the April 1981 settlement the remunerations were increased: Americans who had canceled their trips before 1 March 1980 were reimbursed a total 85 percent of their costs, while those who had canceled after that date were reimbursed 63 percent.[26]
Sixty-eightNational Olympic Committees that were invited to the 1980 Summer Olympics, plus Qatar, did not participate for various reasons, including support for the boycott and economic reasons (Qatar's National Olympic Committee was recognized in February of that year, but not in time to assemble a delegation to be sent).[27]
BoxerMuhammad Ali traveled toTanzania,Nigeria, andSenegal to unsuccessfully convince their leaders to join the boycott. He did, however, successfully convince theKenyan government to do so.
Many countries ultimately joined the U.S. in a full boycott of the Games. These includedJapan andWest Germany, whereChancellor Schmidt was able to convince the West German Olympic Committee to support the boycott.China, thePhilippines,Chile, Argentina andNorway also boycotted the Games entirely.Taiwan refused to participate as a result of the 1979Nagoya Resolution, in which the People's Republic of China agreed to participate in IOC activities if Taiwan was referred to as "Chinese Taipei NOC".[28] However, theSino-Soviet split during that time led China to refuse sending a delegation to the 1980 Summer Olympics as well:
Some of these countries competed at the alternative "Liberty Bell Classic" or Olympic Boycott Games held in Philadelphia that same year.Israel also joined the boycott to protest Soviet military aggression, but also because ofSoviet antisemitic and anti-Israel policies.
The governments of theUnited Kingdom,France, andAustralia supported the boycott, but left any final decision over the participation of their country's athletes to their respective NOCs and the decision of their individual athletes. The United Kingdom and France sent a much smaller athletic delegation than would have originally been possible. The British associations that governedequestrian sports, hockey, shooting andyachting completely boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics.
Spain,Italy,Sweden,Iceland andFinland, although the latter under a heavyRussian influence at the time, were other principal nations representing western Europe at the Games. Of these, Spain and Italy participated under a neutral flag with the Olympic anthem playing in any ceremony. Italian athletes serving in its military corps could not attend the Games, however, because of the national government's official support of the boycott. Many events were affected by the loss of participants, and some US-born athletes who were citizens of other countries, such as Italy and Australia, did compete in Moscow.
A firm enemy of the United States underAyatollah Khomeini's new theocracy, Iran also boycotted the Moscow Games after Khomeini joined the condemnation by theUnited Nations and theIslamic Conference of the invasion of Afghanistan. Independently of the United States, the Islamic Conference urged a boycott of Moscow after the invasion; the Ayatollah meanwhile accused Moscow of armingthe Baluchis against his regime.
Among the 60 countries that joined the boycott to varying degrees,[27] some fully withdrew, while others allowed athletes to compete under neutral flags.[29] Each country’s decision reflected a mix of political pressure, national interest, and individual athlete choice.[27] The following countries participated in the boycott:
Albania
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belize
Bermuda
Bolivia
Canada
Cayman Islands
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile
China
Egypt
El Salvador
Fiji
Gabon
The Gambia
West Germany
Ghana
Haiti
Honduras
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Iran
Israel
Ivory Coast
Japan
Kenya
South Korea
Liberia
Liechtenstein[30]
Malawi
Malaysia
Mauritania
Mauritius
Monaco
Morocco
Netherlands Antilles
Niger
Norway
Pakistan
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Philippines[31]
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Somalia
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Chinese Taipei (
Taiwan)
Thailand
Togo
Tunisia
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
United States
Upper Volta[32]
Uruguay
Virgin Islands
North Yemen
ZaireDuring the 1980 Moscow Olympics, several nations and athletes participated under modified conditions due to the U.S.-led boycott. While some governments officially withdrew their athletes from the Games, individual competitors often chose to participate under neutral flags or alternative arrangements, balancing personal ambition with political pressure.[33]
Seven countries participated in the Games under the Olympic flag without taking part in the Opening Ceremony:[23]
Two nations sent one representative each (Chef de Mission) who entered the Olympic stadium during the Opening Ceremony under the Olympic flag; for each country this was a token gesture, as their governments allowed individual national sports federations and in some cases individual athletes to take part in the Games if they chose to do so. Ireland also competed under the Olympic flag, rather than its own:
Great Britain – Richard Palmer[34] Ireland – Ken Ryan[35]Some nations competed under the flag of their National Olympic Committee:[36][37]
Events were staged separately in several sports, including theLiberty Bell Classic fortrack and field[38] and theUSGF International Invitational forgymnastics.[39] The U.S.–Cuban 12-bout card at theCharlotte Coliseum (on Independence Boulevard, now Bojangles' Coliseum) on February 10, 1980, became the only meeting between Cuban and American boxers and was an important event in boxing; called "one of the prime matches of the year," by U.S. boxing coach Tom Johnson.[40]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Joseph himself qualified for the 1980 Moscow Olympics, but failed to compete as the country joined the US-led boycott of the Games.
