July – The Crusaders, led by theKnights Hospitaller, raidBurlus, located in theNile Delta inEgypt. The town is pillaged, but the knights are ambushed on their return, and several Hospitallers, including Grand MasterGuérin de Montaigu, are captured. Meanwhile, SultanAl-Kamil sends an Egyptian squadron down theRosetta branch of theNile. It sails toCyprus, where it finds a Crusader fleet lying offLimassol. During the attack, they sink and capture all the ships, taking many thousands of prisoners.[1]
Summer – The Crusader army is trapped by a Nile flood atDamietta. CardinalPelagius sends a Venetian squadron to intercept the Egyptian fleet, and attacks the harbours of Rosetta andAlexandria, but to no effect. Lack of money prevents Pelagius from building a sufficient number of ships, and the papal treasury can not spare him anymore. In September more of the Crusaders return home.[2]
Spring – The Mongol army (some 100,000 men) led byGenghis Khan crosses theKyzylkum Desert – a freezing sand-and-tussock wilderness of some 450 kilometers – towardsBukhara. Meanwhile,Muhammad II, ruler of theKhwarazmian Empire, prepares a strong defense around his capitalSamarkand. In February, Genghis approaches Bukhara, which is defended by a garrison of some 20,000 men, and begins theSiege of Bukhara. The city leaders open the gates to the Mongols, but Turkish forces who defend the city's citadel hold out for another twelve days.[3] In a speech at the city's Friday Mosque, Genghis declares "I am the punishment of God."[4]
March – Mongol forces led by Genghis Khan besiege Samarkand, the city is defended by some 40,000 men, including a brigade of 20 war elephants. On the third day, the garrison launches a counter-attack, the defenders sent out their elephants, which panic, turn and trample their own men before escaping onto the open plain. Muhammad II attempts to relieve Samarkand twice but is driven back. After a week, the remainder of the garrison surrenders. The city's inhabitants, numbering some 100,000 are enslaved or slaughtered.[5]
Summer – Muhammad II flees westwards across northernIran, hoping to find safety in the rugged and isolated region ofMazandaran on the southern coast of theCaspian Sea. He is pursued by 20,000 Mongol forces led bySubutai andJebe (the Arrow). Abandoned by the remnants of his panic-stricken troops, Muhammad seeks shelter on a small island nearAstara. There he dies ofpleurisy some weeks later. He is succeeded by his sonJalal al-Din Mangburni, who is forced to flee toIndia after theMongol invasion (see1219).[6]
Autumn – Genghis Khan moves against the wealthy city ofUrgench. He is joined by his eldest sonJochi, now conqueror of half a dozen lesser towns who attacks it from the north. Despite a stout defense, the city is taken after a 5-months siege. The Mongols have to fight for Urgench street by street, razing many houses. Jochi is given the right to loot the city for himself, but prefers to negotiate with the locals to avoid property damage. This is refused by Genghis, who removes Jochi from command and appointsÖgedei instead.[7]
November – Genghis Khan dispatches his youngest sonTolui, at the head of an army (around 50,000 men), into the Khwarazmian province ofKhorasan. His forces also include 300 catapults, 700mangonels to discharge pots filled withnaphtha, 4,000 storming-ladders, and 2,500 sacks of earth for filling up moats. Among the first cities to fall isTermez (captured after a two-day siege) and laterBalkh.[8]
Spring – KingHenry III makes large alterations to theTower of London including new curtain walls, an improved water-filled ditch, and a water gate, so that he can enter the castle directly from theThames.
May 17 – The 12-year-old Henry III is crowned atWestminster Abbey. He is reminded of his duties as king to maintain peace, defend the rights of the English crown, and the barons swear an oath of fealty.
August 8 –Battle of Lihula: Estonian forces encircle theLihula stronghold, occupied by an invading Swedish Crusader army. The Swedish troops along withKarl the Deaf try to make their way out, but they are killed.
November – EmperorTheodore I Laskaris dies after a 16-year reign and is succeeded by his son-in-lawJohn III Doukas Vatatzes. John fends off Theodore's brothers, who believe that they have the better claim for the throne of theEmpire of Nicaea. In December, he becomes the sole ruler, and during his reign, the Empire becomes the most powerful of the Byzantine successor states and the frontrunner in the race to recoverConstantinople from theLatin Empire.[12] John also cultivates a close relationship withFrederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and negotiates withPope Honorius III about the possibility of reuniting the Church.
June – SultanAl-Kamil again offers peace terms to CardinalPelagius with the cession ofJerusalem and allPalestine apart fromOultrejordain, together with a 30 years' truce and money compensation for the dismantling of Jerusalem. Meanwhile, a German contingent underLouis I of Bavaria arrives atDamietta, with orders from Frederick II not to launch an attack onCairo until the emperor's arrival. Louis and Pelagius decide to advance intoEgypt towardsMansoura, where Al-Kamil has built a fortress to protect Cairo. The Crusaders assemble their armies and tents are set up just up theNile, onJune 29.[13]
July 4 – Pelagius orders a three-days fast in preparation for the advance. KingJohn I of Jerusalem arrives at Damietta to rejoin the Crusade at the command of Honorius III. The Crusader force moves towardsSheremsah, halfway betweenFaraskur and Mansoura on the east bank of the Nile, occupying the city onJuly 12. Sources tell of 630 ships of various sizes, 5,000 knights, 4,000 archers, and 40,000 men. A horde of pilgrims march with the army. They are ordered to keep close to the river, to supply the Crusaders with water. Pelagius plans a new offensive and leaves a large garrison at Damietta.[14]
July 24 – Pelagius moves the Crusader forces nearAshmun al-Rumman, on the opposite bank from Mansoura. Queen-RegentAlice of Cyprus and leaders of the military orders warn Pelagius of a large Muslim army being formed inSyria. Meanwhile, the Egyptian army under Al-Kamil crosses the Nile nearLake Manzaleh and establishes themselves between the Crusader camp and Damietta. In the Ushmum canal at Sheremsah, Al-Kamil's ships sail down the Nile and block the Crusaders' line of communications to Damietta. In August, Pelagius orders a retreat, but the route is cut off by Egyptians.[15]
August 26–28 –Battle of Mansoura: The Crusader army led by Pelagius and John I of Jerusalem is defeated by the Egyptian forces at Mansoura. John and the military orders fight a last stand on the river banks of the Nile. He beats off a Nubian assault (supported by elite Turkish cavalry) and drives them back, but only after thousands of soldiers have perished. The remaining Crusaders are surrounded by Al-Kamil's forces and begin a desperate retreat to Damietta. The city is well-garrisoned and supplied with arms; a naval squadron underHenry, Count of Malta ("Enrico Pescatore") defends the harbour against the Egyptians.[16] The Crusaders retreat under cover of darkness. Many of the soldiers cannot bear to abandon their stores of wine, and drink them all rather than leave them. TheTeutonic Knights set fire to the stores that they cannot carry, thus informing the Egyptians that they are abandoning their positions. In the meantime, Al-Kamil orders opening of the sluices along the right bank of the Nile, flooding the area. Pelagius on his ship is carried by the floodwaters past the blockading Egyptian fleet. Other ships, carrying the medical supplies of the army and much of its food, escape, but many are captured.[17]
August 28 – Pelagius sues for peace and sends an envoy to Al-Kamil. The terms of surrender are accepted, which includes the retreat from Damietta – leaving Egypt with the remnants of the Crusader army and an 8-year truce. After prisoners are exchanged, Al-Kamil enters Damietta onSeptember 8. TheFifth Crusade ends with nothing gained for the West, with much lost, men, resources and reputations. The Crusaders blame Frederick II for not being there. Pelagius is accused of ineffectual leadership and a misguided view, which has led to rejecting the sultan's peace offerings.[18]
Spring –Genghis Khan orders an armed reconnaissance expedition into theCaucasus (consisting ofGeorgia andArmenia) under the command ofSubutai andJebe ("the Arrow"). The Mongols defeat two Georgian armies aroundTbilisi, but lack the will or equipment to besiege the capital city. During the fighting, KingGeorge IV of Georgia himself is severely wounded and his elite knights are massacred. Meanwhile inBamyan, the rulerGenghis Khan leads a Mongol force that besieges and captures the fortified city after fierce resistance; during the fighting, his grandsonMutukan is killed, prompting a brutal massacre of the city’s defenders. The Mongols then return toAzerbaijan andPersia, and burn and pillage a few more cities.[19]
February – The cities ofMerv (perhaps the world's largest up to this date),Herat andNishapur which have peacefully surrendered rise up in arms. Genghis Khan sends his sonTolui to spend an extra month to subdue the revolts. Contemporary scholars report over a million people are systematically killed in agenocide.[20]
September –Battle of Parwan: SultanJalal al-Din Mangburni recruits an army of Turkic and Afghan warriors numbering some 60,000 men. As soon as news of this reaches Genghis Khan he sends a Mongol army of 30,000 men, led by his stepbrotherShigi Qutuqu. Meanwhile, Jalal al-Din moves toParwan (modernAfghanistan), where the two armies meet in a narrow valley. Jalal al-Din takes the initiative, ordering his right-wing of Turks to dismount and engage in a skirmish. On the third day, the Mongols are finally defeated by the Khwarezmian forces and are forced to retreat. Shigi Qutuzu is driven off in defeat, losing over half his army.[21]
October – The Mongol army raids Georgia for the second time, and Subutai and Jebe allow their forces to pass through theCaucasus Mountains.[19]
June 16 – The Jewish population ofErfurt (Duchy of Thuringia) is massacred after aritual murder libel. A crowd storms the synagogue where the Jews have gathered with the threat ofbaptism or death. The Jewish quarter, including the synagogue, is razed: many Jews are tortured and killed.
Siege of Tallinn: An Estonian Crusader army tries to conquer the Danish stronghold ofTallinn with the help ofRevalians,Harrians andVironians. They besiege the stronghold for 14 days but finally retreat their forces.
After the invasion and destruction of theKhwarezmian Empire in1221,Genghis Khan returns to Mongolia, and a rebellion sparks inHelmand, to which the response is a large army led byÖgedei Khan sent into the region to put an end to the rebellion of Muhammad the Marghani, resulting in the killing of every man inGhazni andHelmand, and the enslavement and selling of most of the women of the region.
Genghis Khan’s armies were said to have killed approximately 1.6 million people in the city ofHerat, in Northwestern Afghanistan.[29]
May 9 –Synod of Oxford - The 1222 Christian Synod of Oxford passes anti-Semitic laws that forbid social interactions between Jews and Christians, places a specific tithe on Jews and requires them to wear an identifying badge.[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]
Spring – The Polovtsian army assembles on theTerek River lowlands and are joined byAlan,Circassian, and Don Kipchak/Cuman forces. The Mongol army crosses theCaucasus Mountains, but is trapped in the narrow mountain passes. The Mongol generalsSubutai andJebe (the Arrow) send an embassy to the Polovtsians and convince them to break their alliance with the Caucasian peoples. The Mongol cavalry invades theCaucasus region and devastates the local villages, seizing slaves, cattle and horses.[61]
The Mongol army invades Polovtsian territory and defeats the Polovtsians in a great battle near theDon River. Several Polovtsian leaders are killed – while the remainder flees westwards, across theDnieper River, to seek support by various Russian princes. Steppe lands east of the Dnieper fall under Mongol control, Subutai and Jebe raise the wealthy city ofAstrakhan on theVolga River. Subutai now parts his forces, he moves south to theCrimea (orTauric Peninsula), while Jebe travels towards the Dnieper.[62]
Mongol forces capture the nominally Genoese trading outpost ofSudak, probably with the tacit approval of neighbouring rival Venetian outposts in the Crimea. Subutai promises to destroy any non-Venetian colonies in the area. In return, the Venetians provide Subutai with information about the kingdoms inEastern Europe. Meanwhile,Köten Khan, Cuman/Kipchak chieftain of the Polovtsians, convinces PrinceMstislav Mstislavich ofGalicia to form an alliance, and informs him of his plight against the Mongols.[63]
February – A council of Russian princes summons atKiev; several princes are convinced by Köten Khan to assemble an allied army to drive the Mongols back. During the first half of March, Russian princes return to their principalities and begin to raise forces for the forthcoming campaign. The alliance has a combined force of some 60,000 men, mainly cavalry. Subutai unites his army with Jebe, and sends ambassadors to theKievan Rus' princes, to tell them to stay out of the conflict as it didn't involve them.[63]
April – The Russian princes lead their separate armies from different parts ofRussia, to assemble 60 kilometres downriver from Kiev. There are three main groups of princes taking part in the campaign; the Kievan army is represented by Grand PrinceMstislav Romanovich (the Old). The second group are theChernigov andSmolensk armies under PrinceMstislav II. The third group is the Galician-Volhynian army under Mstislav Mstislavich with his son-in-lawDaniel of Galicia, leaving from northernUkraine.[64]
The Mongol leaders Subutai and Jebe receive news thatJochi, who camps north of theCaspian Sea, will not be able to provide the expected reinforcements due to Jochi's reported illness or suspected refusal to obey his fatherGenghis Khan's orders. Subutai sends an embassy to the Russian princes, to offer peace and perhaps attempt to break the Russian alliance with the Polovtsians. But the Mongol ambassadors are executed – a task eagerly carried out by Köten Khan's followers, by the end of April.[64]
LateApril – The Russian and Polovtsian armies march down the west bank of the Dnieper River. Within a few days of the march beginning, a second group of Mongol ambassadors appear in the Russian camp and again offer peace. When their offers are rebuffed, the ambassadors are allowed to leave unharmed. Meanwhile, Russian forces from Galicia arrive by boat or cart-loads of equipment and food, along theBlack Sea coast and up the Dnieper River, screened by Mongol forces on the east bank.[63]
LateMay – The Mongol army under Subutai and Jebe establishes a defensive position on the Kalka River. Increasing disagreements amongst the Russian princes, about the wisdom of continuing to pursue the Mongols deeper into the steppes. By the end of May, the allied forces reach the banks of the Kalka River. The Polovtsian vanguard is way ahead of the rest of the Russian army, which gives them a triumphant feeling. Meanwhile, Subutai and Jebe set up a trap against the Russian forces.[65]
June – Mstislav Mstislavich escapes back to the Dnieper River with the remnants of his Galician army. Mstislav Romanovich (the Old) surrenders and is executed. According to sources, he and other Russian nobles are slowly suffocated to death during a Mongol 'drunken feast', they are tied up and laid flat on the ground beneath what is described as a wooden 'bridge' (or platform), on which Subutai, Jebe and their officers feast. This is revenge for killing the Mongol ambassadors.[66]
Battle of Samara Bend: A Volga-Bulgarian army underGhabdula Chelbir defeats the Mongols, probably led by Subutai, Jebe and Jochi. The Bulgars retreat during the battle but the Mongols pursue them. Then the main Bulgar forces ambush the Mongols. Subutai and Jebe retreat their forces near the city ofSarai (future capital of theGolden Horde), not far from where the Volga River empties into the Caspian Sea.[67]
Autumn – Mongol forces under Jochi, Subutai and Jebe attack and defeat the Qangl Turks (eastern Kipchaks orWild Polovtsians), killing their ruler. During the winter, they continue eastwards across theGreat Steppe. Jebe (possibly poisoned) suddenly dies of a fever near theImil River.[68]
Spring – The Mongol army led byMuqali (orMukhali) strikes intoShaanxi Province, attackingChang'an while Genghis khan is invading theKhwarazmian Empire. The garrison (some 200,000 men) in Chang'an is too strong and Muqali is forced to pillageFeng County. During the campaign, Muqali becomes seriously ill and dies, while his forces are consolidating their position on both sides of theYellow River.[69]
February – KingFerdinand III (the Saint) announces his intention to resume theReconquista against the realm of theAlmohad Caliphate.[71] CaliphYusuf II al-Mustansir dies and is succeeded byAbu Muhammad al-Wahid, but inAl-Andalus, two competing pretenders also claim their rights to the throne: Abu Muhammad Ibn al-Mansur al-Adil inSeville and Abu Muhammad abu Abdallah al-Bayyasi inCórdoba. The chronic political instability on the Almohad site allows Ferdinand to begin his campaign victoriously in October, with the capture ofQuesada inSpain.
May 5 – KingLouis VIII (the Lion) declares war on KingHenry III of England. He allies himself withHugh X of Lusignan and invades firstPoitou and then NorthernGascony. The English forces in Poitou are under-strength and lack support from the Poitevin nobles; as a result, the province quickly falls into French hands by the end of June.[72]
June 5 – TheUniversity of Naples is founded by EmperorFrederick II. Frederick's main purpose is to create an institution of higher learning that will put an end to the predominance of the universities of northernItaly, most notably these ofBologna andPadua, which are considered either too independent or under the strong influence of PopeHonorius III.
August 15 – The garrison atBedford Castle, belonging toFalkes de Bréauté, surrenders to Henry III after a two-month siege that ends after the castle has been undermined by a fire and fallen. After the garrison surrenders, the defenders are all hanged by order of the king. Falkes is allowed to leave the country but loses all his possessions. Bedford Castle is badly damaged as a result.
September 14 –Francis of Assisi, while praying on the mountain ofLa Verna during a 40-day fast, has a vision, as a result of which he receives thestigmata. Brother Leo, who is with Francis at the time, leaves a clear and simple account of this event, the first definite account of the phenomenon of stigmata.[73]
September 17 – EmperorNing Zong of the ChineseSong dynasty dies atHangzhou, possibly from poisoning, after a 30-year reign. He is succeeded by his relative,Li Zong, as all of Ning Zong's children have died.
September –Abdallah al-Adil (the Just), governor in Al-Andalus, challenges the Almohad throne and captures Seville. He marches toMarrakesh to confront Abu Muhammad al-Wahid. Abdallah seizes the royal palace and deposes Muhammad al-Wahid, who is strangled to death.
October – Lý Huệ Tông, Emperor of Vietnam, cedes the throne to his second daughter, the Princess Chiêu Thánh, who becomes the Empress Regnant Lý Chiêu Hoàng.[74]Trần Thủ Độ then arranges a marriage between the Empress andTrần Cảnh, the 8-year-old son of Trần Thừa, and ends the rule of the Lý dynasty by making the Empress pass the throne to Trần Cảnh the following year.
Spring –Battle of Poimanenon: Byzantine forces under EmperorJohn III (Doukas Vatatzes', ruler ofNicaea, defeat the Latin army under the brothersAlexios Laskaris andIsaac Laskaris. They begin a revolt and decide to aid the request of EmperorRobert I of Courtenay. The two armies meet atPoimanenon, south ofCyzicus inMysia, nearLake Kuş ("Bird Lake"). In the ensuing battle, John III achieves a decisive victory; among the captives taken are the two Laskaris brothers, who are blinded. The victory opens the way for the recovery by the Byzantines of most of the Latin possessions inAsia Minor.[76]
Spring –Falkes de Bréauté, English high sheriff and a rival of Henry III, refuses to relinquish his castles and starts a rebellion. CardinalStephen Langton and forces underHubert de Burgh deal with Falkes and the castles are handed over. Falkes is found guilty of 16 counts ofwrongful disseisin; he and his brother William are excommunicated by Langton.
Spring – The Mongol army led bySubutai andJochi cross the steppes of modernKazakhstan, and returns to the horde ofGenghis Khan on theIrtysh River. At a greatkurultai or gathering of chiefs, Subutai reports on the Western campaign. Jochi submits to Genghis and his supposed 'insubordination' (see1220) is forgiven. As a result of the Mongol invasion in 1219–1223, Kazakhstan andCentral Asia become part of theMongol Empire.[77]
TheCharter of the Forest is restored to its traditional rights by KingHenry III. 'Free men' are allowed to find pasture for their pigs, collect firewood, graze animals, or cut turf for fuel. At this time, however, only about 10 percent of the population is 'free', the rest are locked into service to a local landowner, some of them little more than slaves.[79]
TheMagna Carta is reaffirmed (for the third time) by Henry III, in return for issuing a property tax.[80] It becomes the definitive version of the text.[81]
April 15 –Pope Honorius III issues the papal bullMagistro Andree canonico Palentino, granting the Andree, a former Jew who converted to Christianity, the title of canon of Palencia, with full eccleastical dignities.[84]
May 30 – KingLouis VII of France meets inPéronne with ahermit who claims to beBaldwin IX, Count of Flanders and the Latin Emperor of Constantinople, who had not been seen in public since being taken a prisoner in Bulgaria. Concluding that the hermit is an impostor, King Louis gives the man three days to leave France, and the "false Baldwin" instead leads a rebellion, eventually losing and being executed.[87]
EmperorFrederick II takes an oath atSan Germano (nearCassino) and promises to depart on a Crusade (theSixth Crusade), for theNear East in August1227. He sends 1000 knights to theLevant and providesRome with 100,000 ounces of gold, to be forfeited to theCatholic Church should he break his vow. These funds will be returned to Frederick once he arrives atAcre.[89]
July 25 – The Agreement of San Germano is signed between the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Pope Honorius III, with the Emperor Frederick agreeing to lead theSixth Crusade to recaptureJerusalem and the rest of the ChristianHoly Land in the Middle East from theMuslims. In return for the financing and the provision of soldiers by the Catholis Church in Syria, Frederick agrees to launch the Crusade on or before August 15, 1227.[90]
September 11 – TheRepublic of Massa is founded inCentral Italy with Bernardino del fu Losco as its firstpodesta appointed by the council of nine lords to serve as executive of the independent state.[92][93]
November 17 – After being taken prisoner of war at the Battle of Mölln in January, the Danish governor Albrecht signs the Peace ofBardowick in order to obtain his freedom, cedingHolstein to Adolf of Schauenberg, in addition to releasing KingValdemar II of Denmark and his sonValdemar the Younger, who both had been kidnapped in 1223 and held as prisoners.[78]
Autumn –Subutai is assigned a new campaign byGenghis Khan against theTanguts. He crosses theGobi Desert with a Mongol army and advances south into theWestern Xia (orXi Xia). Meanwhile, Genghis, in his mid-sixties, becomes wounded during hunting. His injury – a dislocated shoulder, perhaps, or a bruised rib – forces him to take some rest.[95]
Iltutmish, Ghurid ruler of theDelhi Sultanate, repels a Mongol attack and invadesBengal. His rival,Ghiyasuddin, leads an army to halt Iltutmish's advance, but decides to avoid a conflict by paying him tribute and accepting his suzerainty.[96]
The 8-year-oldHenry I (the Fat) is crowned as king ofCyprus in theCathedral of Saint Sophia atNicosia. His unclePhilip of Ibelin orders the coronation, so that when Henry comes of age at fifteen a regency could not be prolonged on the ground that he is not yet crowned.[97]
February 20 – Pope Honorius II directs the Franciscan Archbishop of Toledo,Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, to lead the Franciscans in converting Moroccan Muslims to Christianity.[101]
March 4 – Just before dawn, agreat conjunction betweenSaturn andJupiter is observed from Earth. The conjunction is more significant than other occurrences because the separation of the two planets as visible in the sky of Earth (2.1arcminutes or 1/30th of one degree of arc) will not be closer again until March 8, 4523CE,[103] and the close conjunction is the most easily visible from Earth until the conjuction of December 21, 2020.[104]
April 5 – TheTreaty of Melun is concluded betweenFrance (ruled by King Louis VIII) andFlanders, ruled jointly of byJeanne, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut, with France agreeing to release her husbandCount Ferrand (who had been a prisoner of war since1214 in return for payment by Flanders of 50,000livres in two installments, withLille,Douai, and Sluis to be occupied by French troops until the debt is paid.[108] In addition, Ferrand and Jeanne agree to swear their loyalty to King Louis, and to require that all Flemish nobles, knight and burghers take a similar oath of loyalty, including a promise not to support the Count of Flanders if he backs out of the treaty.[109][110].
August 8 –Siege of Avignon: After two months without forcing the defenders of Avignon to surrender from lack of food, King Louis VIII gives the order to assault the walls of the city andGuy II, Count of Saint-Pol, begins the second phase of the siege, digging trenches facing the city walls – which are connected on both sides of theRhône with pontoon bridges. Firing from the fortress towers, the defenders repulse the attack and Count Guy is killed by a catapulted stone on the same day.[117][118]
August – AtXingqing in what is now China'sYinchuan province, Emperor Xianzong of theWestern Xia Empire dies after a three-year reign, and is succeeded by his nephew,Li Xian.[119][120] The Mongols underGenghis Khan force the surrender of Western Xia the following year, bringing an end to the Yinchuan province as a separate nation.[121]
September 9 – After Avignon's defenders negotiate a peaceful resolution with the French Army by the payment of an indemnity of 6,000 marks, the gates of the walled city are opened and Louis enters the city without violence.[118]
November 29 – The coronation of Louis IX as King of France takes place at theReims Cathedral at the direction of Queen Blanche, who also orders the defeated French nobles from the Albigensian Crusade to swear allegiance to her son.
December 23 –Jean Halgrin, the French Roman Catholic archbishop ofBesançon, is offered the opportunity to be theCatholic patriarch of Constantinople, but declines the position because of health issues.F. Vigouroux (1912).Dictionnaire de la Bible. Vol. I. Letouzey et Ané.
TheTeutonic Knights undertake a new Crusade, attempting to subdue the paganPrussians, who occupy a part of the Baltic coast. They are invited toPoland by High DukeKonrad I of Masovia, a grandson ofBolesław III Wrymouth. Their task is to defendMasovia against raids of the Prussians. After defeating them, the German knights set up their own state, which they named after the pagan people they have all but annihilated –Prussia.[122]
August – EmperorFrederick II musters a German expeditionary force inApulia. The crowded conditions and high heat contribute to discontent and disease among the assembled troops. OnSeptember 24, an epidemic ofmalaria enfeebles the army atBrindisi. Several thousand Crusaders led byHenry IV, duke ofLimburg, and French and English mercenaries under the bishopsPeter des Roches andWilliam Briwere, arrive atAcre.[126]
September – A second contingent joined by Frederick II, departs from Brindisi to theLevant. OnSeptember 11, during the second day of the voyage, one of Fredericks' companions,Louis IV of Thuringia, dies of an illness (possiblycholera) atOtranto. Frederick also becomes sick and decides to return home, while sending the rest of the Crusader fleet (20 galleys) to Acre. There, they fortify the coastal towns ofCaesarea andJaffa.[127]
November 24 – PrinceLeszek I (the White) is assassinated in an ambush on a council of Polish dukes in the city ofGąsawa, an event which later becomes known as theGąsawa Massacre.
Siege of Yinchuan: Mongol forces eliminate theWestern Xia (orXi Xia) and execute EmperorMo (orLi Xian). Genghis Khan dies during the siege under debated circumstances, but this is kept secret from the army until the siege's end. Yinchuan is pillaged and its entire population is slaughtered or sold intoslavery. Genghis orders the imperial family to be executed, effectively ending theTangut royal lineage.[133]
August 18 – Genghis Khan dies during the fall ofYinchuan after a 21-year reign. His exact cause of death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained duringhunting. Genghis is succeeded by his third son, Ögedei Khan, who becomes the "Great Khan" of theMongol Empire.[134]
Summer – EmperorFrederick II sails fromBrindisi with an expeditionary force and arrives inAcre in theMiddle East onSeptember 7. He disembarks a well-trained and equipped Crusader army (some 10,000 men and 2,000 knights). After his arrival inPalestine, Frederick is again excommunicated by PopeGregory IX, for setting out for the Crusade before he has obtained absolution from his previous ex-communication (see1227). Many of the local nobility, theKnights Templar andKnights Hospitaller deny him their support for the Crusade. Frederick can only rely on his own army and theTeutonic Knights, whose Grand Master,Hermann von Salza, is his friend.[138]
Autumn – Frederick II receives an embassy of SultanAl-Kamil, includingFakhr al-Din ibn as-Shaikh, at the Hospitaller camp atRecordane, near Acre. Meanwhile, Al-Kamil is engaged in suppressing a rebellion inSyria and has concentrated his forces on a siege atDamascus. Frederick is pressed for time, because his army is not large enough for a major campaign. Al-Kamil, who has full control ofJerusalem, starts diplomatic negotiations.[139]
November – Frederick II puts pressure on the negotiations by a military display. He assembles his Crusader army and marches down the coast toJaffa – which he proceeds to refortify. At the same moment, Ayyubid forces underAn-Nasir Dawud, who are not participating in the revolt at Damascus, move toNablus, to intercept Al-Kamil's supply lines. Al-Kamil breaks off the negotiations, saying that the Crusaders have pillaged several Muslim villages, and only resumes them again when Frederick pays out compensation to the victims.[139]
April 25 – The 16-year-oldIsabella II, Holy Roman Empress and wife of Frederick II, dies after giving birth to her second child,Conrad IV, atAndria. He receives the titleKing of Jerusalem (asConrad II) – with Frederick asregent. By his father, Conrad is the grandson of theHohenstaufen EmperorHenry VI and great-grandson of the late EmperorFrederick I (Barbarossa).
KingJames I (the Conqueror) launches a major offensive against the Almohads inMajorca. At the same moment, Emir Ibn Hud al-Yamadi (confronted by increasing Christian pressure) denounces Almohad rule inMurcia (modernSpain) and acknowledges theAbbasid Caliphate as legitimate overlord, in effect declaring independence.[140] Other notable Christian success: KingAlfonso IX of León conquersMérida.[123]
The city ofTournai emits its first recordedlife annuity, thus confirming a trend of consolidation of public debts startedten years earlier, inReims.[142]
The first evidence is uncovered of the use of the Knights Templar as cashiers by KingHenry III of England, to safely transfer important sums to the continent, using letters of exchange. This shows that large transfers could take place acrossEurope, even before the emergence of important networks of Italianmerchant-bankers.[143]
February 18 –Treaty of Jaffa: EmperorFrederick II signs a 10-year truce together with SultanAl-Kamil and his representatives; he manages to regain many parts of theHoly Land through political negotiation, rather than by resorting to military force or directly confronting the Muslim army. Frederick's achievements, including the control ofJerusalem (without theTemple Mount) andBethlehem, with a corridor running throughLydda to the sea ofJaffa, as well asNazareth and westernGalilee, includingMontfort Castle andToron, and the remaining Muslim districts aroundSidon. All Muslims are to be allowed the right of entry in Jerusalem and freedom of worship.[144]
March 17 – Frederick II enters Jerusalem, escorted by German and Italian troops. Of the Military Orders only theTeutonic Knights are represented and some clergy. He receives the formal surrender of the city by Al-Kamil's governor (orQadi), who hands him the keys of Jerusalem. The procession then passes through streets to the old building of the Hospital (or theMuristan), where Frederick takes up his residence in theChristian Quarter.[145]
March 18 – Frederick II crowns himself asKing of Jerusalem in an impromptu ceremony in theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre. After the ceremony, he proceeds to the palace of theHospitallers – where he holds a council to discuss the defense of Jerusalem. Frederick orders theTower of David and theGate of St. Stephen are to be repaired at once and he hands over the royal residence attached to the Tower of David to the Teutonic Order.[146]
May 1 – Frederick II departs fromAcre, while he and his suite pass down the "Street of the Butchers" to the harbour, the people crowd out of the doors, and pelts him with entrails and dung. Meanwhile,Odo of Montbéliard (orEudes), commander of the Crusader army, andJohn of Ibelin, lord ofBeirut, are left behind to quell the unrest inPalestine.[147]
Autumn – Frederick II recovers the lost Italian territories and tries to condemn the leading rebel barons, but avoids crossing the frontiers of thePapal States. Meanwhile, a first serious raid on Jerusalem is made by a mass of unorganizedBeduins and plunderers of pilgrims. An advance guard encouraged the Christians to expel the Muslims.[148]
January 23 – The episcopal seat is moved fromNousiainen toKoroinen (located near the current centre ofTurku) by the permission ofPope Gregory IX. The date is starting to be considered as the founding of Turku.[149]
March 6 –University of Paris strike: Students begin to riot, after a dispute over a bill with a tavern proprietor. QueenBlanche of Castile demands retribution, and allows the city guard to punish the student rioters. She puts an economic strain upon the student quarter ofParis (theLatin Quarter), whereLatin is commonly heard in the streets.
April 12 –Treaty of Paris: CountRaymond VII is forced to sign a peace treaty (also known as the "Treaty of Meaux"). This brings theAlbigensian Crusade to an end. Raymond regains his feudal rights but has to swear his allegiance to KingLouis IX (the Saint). The fortifications, such as these ofAvignon andToulouse, are dismantled.[150]
October 13 – KingHenry III calls for an army to be assembled atPortsmouth to be transported toNormandy to regain lost territories from the French. A large army of knights turns up ready to go but not enough ships have been provided. Henry blamesHubert de Burgh for the fiasco and in his rage will have killed him ifRanulf of Chester has not intervened. This marks the beginning of the rift between Henry and Hubert de Burgh. Meanwhile, the expedition is postponed until mid-1230.
^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 140–141.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 141.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Maalouf, Amin (2006).The Crusades through Arab Eyes, pp. 225–226. Saqi Books.ISBN978-0-863-56023-1.
^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 141–142.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 142–143.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^abSteven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 207.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^abSteven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 205–206.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Tanner, Stephen (2009).Afghanistan - A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban, p. 94. Da Capo Press.
^Agnes Mure MacKenzie (1957).The Foundations of Scotland, p. 251.
^Perkins, George W. (August 1998)."Mourning Attire".The Clear Mirror: A Chronicle of the Japanese Court During the Kamakura Period (1185-1333). Stanford University Press. p. 59.ISBN0804763887.
^The 1222 Christian Synod of Oxford passed laws that forbade social interactions between Jews and Christians. placed a specific tithe on Jews and required them to wear an identifying badge.
^Sundararajan, Narasimman; Eshagh, Mehdi; Saibi, Hakim; Meghraoui, Mustapha; Al-Garni, Mansour; Giroux, Bernard (2019)."Possible Tsunami Wave Heights in the Eastern Mediterranean Region from 1222 Paphos Earthquake (by Ergin Ulutaş)".On Significant Applications of Geophysical Methods: Proceedings of the 1st Springer Conference of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences (CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018. Advances in Science, Technology and Innovation: IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 219.ISBN9783030016562.
^David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey:Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia, p. 52.ISBN1-84176-233-4.
^John Man (2011).Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection, p. 217.ISBN978-0-553-81498-9.
^abcDavid Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey:Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia, p. 57.ISBN1-84176-233-4.
^abJohn Man (2011).Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection, p. 218.ISBN978-0-553-81498-9.
^David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey:Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia, p. 64.ISBN1-84176-233-4.
^John Man (2011).Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection, pp. 220–221.ISBN978-0-553-81498-9.
^David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey:Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia, p. 83.ISBN1-84176-233-4.
^David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey:Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia, p. 84.ISBN1-84176-233-4.
^Igor de Rachewiltz (1993).In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300), p. 7. Harrassowitz Verlag.
^Jacoby, David (2006). "The Venetian Government and Administration in Latin Constantinople, 1204–1261: A State within a State". In Gherardo Ortalli; Giorgio Ravegnani; Peter Schreiner (eds.).Quarta Crociata. Venezia – Bisanzio – Impero latino. Atti delle giornate di studio. Venezia, 4-8 maggio 2004. Venice: Istituto veneto di scienze, lettere ed arti. pp. 70–71.ISBN978-8-8881-4374-3.
^Linehan, Peter (1999). "Chapter 21: Castile, Portugal and Navarre". InAbulafia, David (ed.).The New Cambridge Medieval History c.1198-c.1300. Cambridge University Press. pp. 668–699 [672].ISBN0-521-36289-X.
^Carpenter, David (1996).The Reign of Henry III, pp. 374–375. London, UK: Hambledon Press.ISBN1-85285-137-6.
^The Chronicle of William of Puylaurens: The Albigensian Crusade and Its Aftermath (2003) p.70
^Sir James H. Ramsay of Bamff,A History of the Revenues of the Kings of England, 1066-1399 (Clarendon Press, 1925) pp.279-281
^"Michael Scot in Spain", by Charles H. Haskins, inEstudios Eruditos in Memoriam de Adolfo Bonilla Y San Martin (1875-1926) (University of Madrid, 1950) p.152
^Malcolm Lambert,Medieval Heresy: Popular Movements from Bogomil to Hus, (Edward Arnold Ltd, 1977) p.143
^Jeanne de Constantinople face aux fantômes du père ("Jeanne of Constantinople facing the ghosts of her father"), by Gilles Lecuppre, inJeanne de Constantinople, comtesse de Flandre et de Hainaut, ed. by Nicolas Dessaux (Somogy, 2009), pp. 33–40
^Michael Ott, "Pope Honorius III",The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 7 (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910)
^Jean Létanche (1907),Les Vieux Châteaux, Maisons fortes et Ruines féodales du canton d'Yenne en Savoie [Old Castles, Fortified Houses and Feudal Ruins of the Canton of Yenne in Savoy], Le livre d'Histoire-Lorisse,ISBN9782843738135{{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Richards, D. S. (2010).The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fīʼl-taʼrīkh. Ashgate Publishing. p. 269.ISBN9780754669524.
^Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996).Handbook of British Chronology (Third revised ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 85.ISBN0-521-56350-X.
^Brezinski, Richard (1998).History of Poland: Old Poland – The Piast Dynasty, pp. 22–23.ISBN83-7212-019-6.
^abPicard, Christophe (2000).Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. p. 110.ISBN2-7068-1398-9.
^Man, John (2004).Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection, p. 214.ISBN978-0-312-36624-7.
^abSteven Runciman (1952).A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 156.ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Linehan, Peter (1999). "Chapter 21: Castile, Portugal and Navarre". InAbulafia, David (ed.).The New Cambridge Medieval History c.1198-c.1300. Cambridge University Press. pp. 668–699 [672].ISBN0-521-36289-X.
^Rayfield, Donald (2012).Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia, p. 124. London: reaktion Books.ISBN1-780-23030-3.
^Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009).Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for renten, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden/Boston: Brill.ISBN978-9-00417565-5.
^Ferris, Eleanor (1902). "The Financial Relations of the Knights Templars to the English Crown".American Historical Review.8 (1):1–17.doi:10.2307/1832571.JSTOR1832571.
^V.A. Kuchkin (1986).О дате рождения Александра Невского [About the Birthdate of Alexander Nevsky].Вопросы истории [Questions of History] (in Russian) (2):174–176. Archived fromthe original on 22 February 2015.
^Rayborn, Tim (9 October 2014). "Popular Religion, Heresy and Mendicancy".Against the Friars: Antifraternalism in Medieval France and England. McFarland. p. 17.ISBN978-0786468317.
^Francisco Márquez Villanueva; Carlos Alberto Vega (1990).Alfonso X of Castile, the learned king, 1221-1284: an international symposium, Harvard University, 17 November 1984. Dept. of Romance Languages and Literatures of Harvard University. p. 165.ISBN0940940434.
