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Vietnamese alphabet

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Modern writing system for the Vietnamese language
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Vietnamese alphabet
chữ Quốc ngữ
Script type
CreatorFrancisco de Pina and other Portuguese and ItalianJesuits[1][2][3][4]
LanguagesVietnamese, other indigenouslanguages of Vietnam
Related scripts
Parent systems
Child systems
Bahnar alphabet,Cham alphabet,Nùng alphabet,Tày alphabet[5]

TheVietnamese alphabet (Vietnamese:Chữ Quốc ngữ,Chữ Nôm:𡨸國語,lit. 'Script of the National Language',IPA:[t͡ɕɨ˦ˀ˥kuək̚˧˦ŋɨ˦ˀ˥]) is the modern writing script for theVietnamese language. It uses theLatin script based onRomance languages[6] originally developed byFrancisco de Pina (1585–1625), amissionary fromPortugal.[1]

The Vietnamese alphabet contains 29letters, including 7 letters using fourdiacritics:⟨ă⟩,⟨â⟩,⟨ê⟩,⟨ô⟩,⟨ơ⟩,⟨ư⟩, and⟨đ⟩. There are an additional 5 diacritics used to designatetone (as in⟨à⟩,⟨á⟩,⟨ả⟩,⟨ã⟩, and⟨ạ⟩). The complex vowel system and the large number of letters with diacritics, which can stack twice on the same letter (e.g.nhất meaning 'first'), makes it easy to distinguish the Vietnamese orthography from other writing systems that use theLatin script.[7]

The Vietnamese system's use of diacritics produces an accurate transcription fortones despite the limitations of the Roman alphabet. On the other hand, sound changes in the spoken language have led to different letters, digraphs and trigraphs now representing the same sounds.

Letter names and pronunciation

[edit]
This article containsphonetic transcriptions in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Vietnamese uses 22 letters of theISO basic Latin alphabet. The 4 remaining letters aren't considered part of the Vietnamese alphabet although they are used to writeloanwords, languages of other ethnic groups in the country based on Vietnamese phonetics to differentiate the meanings or even Vietnamese dialects, for example:⟨dz⟩ or⟨z⟩ for southerner pronunciation of⟨v⟩ in standard Vietnamese.

In total, there are 12 vowels (nguyên âm) and 17 consonants (phụ âm, literally 'extra sound').

Handwritten Vietnamese alphabet
Vietnamese alphabet[8]
LetterInput keysName (when
pronounced)		IPAMorse Code
TELEXVNIHanoiNghệ AnSài Gòn
A, aaʔaː˧˧ʔaː˧˥ʔaː˧˧ ▄ ▄▄▄ 
Ă, ăAWA8áʔaː˧˥ʔaː˩˩ʔaː˧˥ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ 
Â, âAAA6ớʔəː˧˥ʔəː˩˩ʔəː˧˥ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ 
B, bbê / bờʔɓe˧˧ʔɓe˧˥ʔɓe˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ 
C, cxê / cờse˧˧se˧˥se˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
D, ddê / dờze˧˧ze˧˥je˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ 
Đ, đDDD9đêʔɗe˧˧ʔɗe˧˥ʔɗe˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ 
E, eeʔɛ˧˧ʔɛ˧˥ʔɛ˧˧ ▄ 
Ê, êEEE6êʔe˧˧ʔe˧˥ʔe˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
G, ggiê / gờzə˧˧zə˧˥jə˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
H, hháthaːt˧˥haːt˩˩haːk˧˥ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ 
I, ii ngắnʔi˧˧ʔi˧˥ʔi˧˧ ▄ ▄ 
K, kcakaː˧˧kaː˧˥kaː˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ 
L, l(e) lờʔɛ˧˧lə̤ː˨˩ʔɛ˧˥ləː˧˧ʔɛ˧˧ləː˨˩ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ 
M, m(e) mờʔɛm˧˧mə̤ː˨˩ʔɛm˧˥məː˧˧ʔɛm˧˧məː˨˩ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ 
N, n(e) nờʔɛn˧˧nə̤ː˨˩ʔɛn˧˥nəː˧˧ʔɛŋ˧˧nəː˨˩ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
O, ooʔɔ˧˧ʔɔ˧˥ʔɔ˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ 
Ô, ôOOO6ôʔo˧˧ʔo˧˥ʔo˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
Ơ, ơOWO7ơʔəː˧˧ʔəː˧˥ʔəː˧˧ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ 
P, ppêpe˧˧pe˧˥pe˧˧ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
Q, qquy / quờkwi˧˧kwi˧˥wi˧˧ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ 
R, rrờʔɛ˧˧zə̤ː˨˩ʔɛ˧˥ɹəː˧˧ʔɛ˧˧ɹəː˨˩ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
S, sét / sờ nặngʔɛt˧˥si̤˨˩ʔɛt˩˩si˧˧ʔɛk˧˥ʂi˨˩ ▄ ▄ ▄ 
T, ttê / tờte˧˧te˧˥te˧˧ ▄▄▄ 
U, uuʔu˧˧ʔu˧˥ʔu˧˧ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ 
Ư, ưUW/WU7ưʔɨ˧˧ʔɨ˧˥ʔɨ˧˧ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ 
V, vvê / vờve˧˧ve˧˥je˧˧ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ 
X, xích / xờ nhẹʔik˧˥si̤˨˩ʔik˩˩si˧˧ʔɨt˧˥si˨˩ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ 
Y, yi dàiʔi˧˧za̤ːj˨˩ʔi˧˥zaːj˧˧ʔi˧˧jaːj˨˩ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ 
Notes
Vietnamese unused letters
LetterName (when
pronounced)		Hà NộiNghệ AnSài GònMorse Code
IPAPhonemeIPAPhonemeIPAPhoneme
F, fépʔɛp˧˥/f/ʔɛp˩˩/f/ʔɛp˧˥/f/ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
J, jgizi̤˧˧/z/ji˧˥/z/ji˧˧/j/ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ 
W, wvê kép / đớp lưuve˧˧kɛp˧˥/w/ve˧˥kɛp˩˩/w/je˧˧kɛp˧˥/w/ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ 
Z, zdétzɛt˧˥/z/zɛt˩˩/z/jɛk˧˥/j/ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ 
  • The vowels in the table are bolded and italicized.
  • The use of the termsbê bò orbờ bò to refer to⟨b⟩ and aspê phở orpờ phở to refer to⟨p⟩ is to avoid confusion in some contexts, the same for⟨s⟩ assờ mạnh orsờ nặng (literally, 'strong s' or 'heavy s') and⟨x⟩ asxờ nhẹ (literally, 'light x'),⟨i⟩ asi ngắn (literally, 'short i') and⟨y⟩ asy dài (literally, 'long y').
  • ⟨q⟩ is always followed by⟨u⟩ in every word and phrase in Vietnamese, e.g.quần 'trousers',quyến rũ 'to attract', etc.
  • The namei-cờ-rét for⟨y⟩ is from the French name for the letter:i grec (literally, 'Greek i'),[9] referring to the letter's origin from theGreek letterupsilon. The other obsolete French pronunciations include⟨e⟩ (/əː˧/) and⟨u⟩ (/wi˧/).
  • The Vietnamese alphabet lacks the 4 letters⟨f⟩ (ép,ép-phờ),⟨j⟩ (gi),⟨w⟩ (đớp lưu 'double u',vê kép,vê đúp 'double v') and⟨z⟩ (giét). However, these letters are often used for foreign loanwords (even partially adapted ones:flo 'fluorine',jun 'joule',bazơ 'base') or may be kept for foreign names.
  • ⟨y⟩ is most commonly treated as a vowel along with⟨i⟩.⟨i⟩ represents 'short/i˧/' and⟨y⟩ represents 'long/i˧/'.⟨y⟩ can have tones as well as other vowels (⟨ý⟩,⟨ỳ⟩,⟨ỹ⟩,⟨ỷ⟩,⟨ỵ⟩) e.g.Mỹ 'America'. It may also act as a consonant (when used after⟨â⟩ and⟨a⟩). It can sometimes be used to replace⟨i⟩, e.g.bánh mì 'bread' can sometimes be writtenbánh mỳ by some people, but it is not generally considered standard or accurate.
  • ⟨s⟩ and⟨x⟩ are similar to each other in sound in Northern Vietnamese dialects or with some Southern Vietnamese speakers (especially in theMekong Delta region) and can sometimes be used interchangeably between these speakers, e.g.sương xáo orsương sáo 'grass jelly'.

Middle Vietnamese alphabet

[edit]

The Vietnamese alphabet in theDictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum ofAlexandre de Rhodes has 23 letters:

Upper caseABꞗCDđEGHIKLMNOPQRSTVXY
Lower caseabcdeghiklmnopqrſ/stv/uxy

In this dictionary, there are fewer letters than the modern alphabet. The lettersă,â,ê,ô,ơ, andư are regarded as separate letters in the modern alphabet and are used in the dictionary, but the author does not regard them as separate letters. In the dictionary, a letter with diacritics, likeà,ạ,ă,ằ, andặ, are not separate from the lettera;à,ạ,ă,ằ, andặ are just regarded as the lettera with diacritics.

In the alphabet, there is a letter, theletter b with flourishꞗ, that has fallen out of use. It was used to represents thevoiced bilabial fricative /β/.[10]

Two letters,ꞗ andđ, are neither upper nor lower case.[11] So according to that orthography, the names of the two provincesĐồng Nai andLâm Đồng will beđồng Nai andLâm đồng. In the modern alphabet, the lower case version ofđ isđ, and upper case version ofđ isĐ.

There are two variants of minuscules: the long s,ſ, and the short s,s. In the modern alphabet, the long s,ſ, is no longer used, and the short s,s, is the only variant of s.

Normalv in the dictionary has two variants: the normal v,v, and the curving-bottom v,u.[12] In the 17th century,v andu were not different letters,v being a variant ofu.[13]

Consonants

[edit]

The alphabet is largely derived fromPortuguese with some influence fromFrench[citation needed], although the usage of⟨gh⟩ and⟨gi⟩ was borrowed fromItalian (compareghetto,Giuseppe) and that for⟨c, k, qu⟩ from (Latinised) Greek and Latin (comparecanis,kinesis,quō vādis), mirroring theEnglish usage of these letters (comparecat,kite,queen).

There is onetrigraph,⟨ngh⟩, and tendigraphs:⟨ch⟩,⟨gh⟩,⟨gi⟩,⟨kh⟩,⟨ng⟩,⟨nh⟩,⟨ph⟩,⟨qu⟩,⟨th⟩,⟨tr⟩.

Consonants
GraphemePronunciation (IPA)Notes
Syllable-initialSyllable-final
NorthernCentralSouthernNorthernCentralSouthern
B b/ɓ/
C c/k//k̚/~/k̚ʷ/⟨k⟩ is used instead when preceding⟨i, y, e, ê⟩.
⟨qu⟩ is used instead of⟨co, cu⟩ if a/w/ on-glide exists.
Realized as[k̚ʷ] or[k͡p̚] word-finally following rounded vowels⟨u, ô, o⟩.
Ch ch/t͡ɕ//c//k̟̚//t̚/Multiple phonemic analyses of the Northern realization of final⟨ch⟩ have been proposed.
D d/z//j/InMiddle Vietnamese,⟨d⟩ represented/ð/. The distinction between⟨d⟩ and⟨gi⟩ is now purely etymological in most modern dialects, although it is noted that some Southerners may pronounce⟨gi⟩ as/z/ if distinction from⟨d⟩ is strictly necessary.
Đ đ/ɗ/
G g/ɣ/
Gh ghUsed instead of⟨g⟩ before⟨i, e, ê⟩, seemingly to follow theItalian convention.⟨g⟩ is not allowed in these environments.
Gi gi/z//j/~/z/In Middle Vietnamese,⟨gi⟩ represented/ʝ/. The distinction between⟨d⟩ and⟨gi⟩ is now purely etymological in most modern dialects, although it is noted that some Southerners may pronounce⟨gi⟩ as/z/ if distinction from⟨d⟩ is strictly necessary.

Spelled⟨g⟩ before another⟨i⟩.[a]

H h/h/
K k/k/Used instead of⟨c⟩ before⟨i, y, e, ê⟩ to follow theEuropean tradition.⟨c⟩ is not allowed in these environments.
Kh kh/x/In Middle Vietnamese,⟨kh⟩ represented[kʰ]
L l/l/
M m/m/
N n/n//ŋ/~/n/In Southern Vietnamese, word-final⟨n⟩ is realized as[ŋ] if not following⟨i, ê⟩.
Ng ng/ŋ//ŋ/~/ŋʷ/Realized as[ŋʷ] or[ŋ͡m] word finally after rounded vowels⟨u, ô, o⟩.
Ngh nghSpelling used instead of⟨ng⟩ before⟨i, e, ê⟩ in accordance with⟨gh⟩.
Nh nh/ɲ//ŋ̟//n/Multiple phonemic analyses of the Northern realization of final⟨nh⟩ have been proposed.
P p/p/~/ɓ//p̚/Only occurs initially in loanwords. Some Vietnamese pronounce it as a⟨b⟩ sound instead (a similar process occurs among speakers ofArabic, which lacks an unvoiced counterpart to/b/).
Ph ph/f/In Middle Vietnamese,⟨ph⟩ represented[pʰ]
Qu qu/kw//w/Used in place of⟨co, cu⟩ if a/w/ on-glide exists.
R r/z//r/Realized as[ʒ] in Northernspelling pronunciation.

In southern speech, the phoneme /r/, generally represented in Vietnamese linguistics by the letter ⟨r⟩, has a number of variant pronunciations. It may occur as a retroflex fricative[ʐ], an alveolar approximant[ɹ], an alveolar flap[ɾ], a trill[r], a velar fricative[ɣ], and a palatal approximant[j]. The last two are not considered standard.

S s/s//ʂ/Realized as[ʃ] in Northernspelling pronunciation.
T t/t//t̚//k̚/~/t̚/In Southern Vietnamese, word-final⟨t⟩ is realized as[k̚] if not following⟨i, ê⟩.
Th th/tʰ/
Tr tr/t͡ɕ//ʈ/Realized as[t͡ʃ] in Northernspelling pronunciation.
V v/v//j/~/v/In Middle Vietnamese, it was spelled with the now-obsolete letter⟨ꞗ⟩ to represent[β].
Can be realized as[v] in Southern speech throughspelling pronunciation and in loanwords. In traditional performance including Cải lương, Đờn ca tài tử, Hát bội and some old speakers of Overseas Vietnamese, it is pronounced as consonant cluster[bj],[βj] or[vj].[14]
X x/s/In Middle Vietnamese,⟨x⟩ was pronounced[ɕ].
  • The consonants also called with its phoneme withờ, exceptk. Sob will bebờ,c will becờ and so on.
  1. ^This causes some ambiguity with the diphthong⟨ia, iê⟩, for examplegia could be either⟨gi⟩+⟨a⟩[za~ja] or⟨gi⟩+⟨ia⟩[ziə̯~jiə̯]. If there is atone mark the ambiguity is resolved:giá is⟨gi⟩+⟨á⟩ andgía is⟨gi⟩+⟨ía⟩.

Vowels

[edit]

Pronunciation

[edit]

The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is somewhat complicated. In some cases, the same letter may represent several different sounds, and different letters may represent the same sound. This is because the orthography was designed centuries ago and the spoken language has changed, as shown in the chart directly above that contrasts the difference between Middle and Modern Vietnamese.[citation needed]

⟨i⟩ and⟨y⟩ are mostly equivalent, and there is no concrete rule that says when to use one or the other, except in sequences like⟨ay⟩ and⟨uy⟩ (i.e.tay 'arm, hand' is read as/tă̄j/ whiletai 'ear' is read as/tāj/). There have been attempts since the late 20th century to standardize the orthography by replacing⟨y⟩ with⟨i⟩ when it represents a vowel, the latest being a decision from the Vietnamese Ministry of Education in 1984. These efforts seem to have had limited effect. In textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục ('Publishing House of Education'),⟨y⟩ is used to represent/i/ only inSino-Vietnamese words that are written with one letter⟨y⟩ alone (diacritics can still be added, as in⟨ý⟩,⟨ỷ⟩), at the beginning of a syllable when followed by⟨ê⟩ (as inyếm,yết), after⟨u⟩ and in the sequence⟨ay⟩; therefore such forms as *lý and *kỹ are not "standard", though they are much preferred elsewhere. Most people and the popular media continue to use the spelling that they are most accustomed to.[citation needed]

Spelling and pronunciation in Vietnamese
SpellingSound
a /a/ ([æ] in some dialects) except as below
 /ă/ inau/ăw/ anday/ăj/ (but/a/ inao/aw/ andai/aj/)
 /ăj/ before syllable-finalnh/ŋ/ andch/k/, see
 Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of finalch,nh
 /ə̯/ inưa/ɨə̯/,ia/iə̯/ andya/iə̯/
 /ə̯/ inua except afterq[note 1]
ă /ă/
â /ə̆/
e /ɛ/
ê /e/ except as below
 /ə̆j/ before syllable-finalnh/ŋ/ andch/k/, see
 Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of finalch,nh
 /ə̯/ iniê/iə̯/ andyê/iə̯/
i /i/ except as below
 /j/ after any vowel letter
o /ɔ/ except as below
 /ăw/ beforeng andc[note 2]
 /w/ after any vowel letter (= aftera ore)
 /w/ before any vowel letter excepti (= beforeă,a ore)
ô /o/ except as below
 /ə̆w/ beforeng andc except after au that is not preceded by aq[note 3]
 /ə̯/ inuô except afterq[note 4]
ơ /ə/ except as below
 /ə̯/ inươ/ɨə̯/
u /u/ except as below
 /w/ afterq or any vowel letter
 /w/ before any vowel letter excepta,ô andi
 Beforea,ô andi:/w/ if preceded byq,/u/ otherwise
ư /ɨ/
y /i/ except as below
 /j/ after any vowel letter exceptu (= afterâ anda)
  1. ^qua is pronounced/kwa/ except inquay, where it is pronounced/kwă/. When not preceded byq,ua is pronounced/uə̯/.
  2. ^However,oong andooc are pronounced/ɔŋ/ and/ɔk/.
  3. ^uông anduôc are pronounced/uə̯ŋ/ and/uə̯k/ when not preceded by aq.
  4. ^quô is pronounced/kwo/ except inquông andquôc, where it is pronounced/kwə̆w/. When not preceded byq,uô is pronounced/uə̯/.

The uses of⟨i⟩ and⟨y⟩ to represent the phoneme/i/ can be categorized as "standard" (as used in textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục) and "non-standard" as follows.

Standard spellings in Vietnamese
Context"Standard""Non-standard"
In one-lettered non-Sino-Vietnamese syllablesi (e.g.: í ới)
In one-lettered Sino-Vietnamese syllablesy (e.g.: y học)
Syllable-initial, not followed byêi (e.g.: im lặng)
Syllable-initial, followed byêy (e.g.: yết hầu)
Afteruy (e.g.: khuyết tật)
Afterqu, not followed byê, nhy (e.g.: quý giá)i (e.g.: quí giá)
Afterqu, followed byê, nhy (e.g.: xảo quyệt)
Afterb, d, đ, r, xi (e.g.: địch thủ)
Afterg, not followed bya, ă, â, e, ê, o, ô, ơ, u, ưi (e.g.: giữ gìn)
Afterh, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in non-Sino-Vietnamese syllablesi (e.g.: mí mắt)
Afterh, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in Sino-Vietnamese syllablesi (e.g.: kì thú)y (e.g.: kỳ thú)
Afterch, gh, kh, nh, ph, thi (e.g.: ý nghĩa)
Aftern, s, v, not followed by any letter, in non-proper-noun syllablesi (e.g.: ni cô)
Aftern, s, v, not followed by any letter, inproper nounsi (e.g.: Vi)y (e.g.: Vy)
Afterh, k, l, m, n, s, t, v, followed by a letteri (e.g.: ngôi miếu)
In Vietnamesepersonal names, after a consonantieither ior y,depending on personal preference

This "standard" set by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục is not definite. It is unknown why the literature books useLí while the history books useLý.

Spelling

[edit]

Vowel nuclei

[edit]

The table below matches the vowels of Hanoi Vietnamese (written in theIPA) and their respective orthographic symbols used in the writing system.

FrontCentralBack
SoundSpellingSoundSpellingSoundSpelling
Centering/iə̯/iê/ia*/ɨə̯/ươ/ưa*/uə̯/uô/ua*
Close/i/i, y/ɨ/ư/u/u
Close-mid/
Mid		/e/ê/ə/ơ/o/ô
/ə̆/â
Open-mid/
Open		/ɛ/e/a/a/ɔ/o
/ă/ă

Notes:

  • The vowel/i/ is:
    • usually written⟨i⟩:/sǐˀ/ =sĩ (a suffix indicating profession, similar to the English suffix-er).
    • sometimes written⟨y⟩ after⟨h⟩,⟨k⟩,⟨l⟩,⟨m⟩,⟨n⟩,⟨s⟩,⟨t⟩,⟨v⟩,⟨x⟩:/mǐˀ/ =Mỹ 'America'
      • It is always written⟨y⟩ when:
  1. preceded by an orthographic vowel:/xwīə̯n/ =khuyên 'to advise';
  2. at the beginning of a word derived from Chinese (written as⟨i⟩ otherwise):/ʔīə̯w/ =yêu 'to love'.
  • The vowel/ɔ/ is written⟨oo⟩ before⟨c⟩ or⟨ng⟩ (since⟨o⟩ in that position represents/ăw/):/ʔɔ̌k/ =oóc 'organ (musical)';/kǐŋkɔ̄ŋ/ =kính coong. This generally only occurs in recent loanwords or when representing dialectal pronunciation.
  • Similarly, the vowel/o/ is written⟨ôô⟩ before⟨c⟩ or⟨ng⟩:/ʔōŋ/ =ôông (Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh variant ofông/ʔə̆̄wŋ/). But unlike⟨oo⟩ being frequently used in onomatopoeia,transcriptions from other languages and words "borrowed" from Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh dialects (such asvoọc),⟨ôô⟩ seems to be used solely to convey the feel of the Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh accents. In transcriptions,⟨ô⟩ is preferred (e.g.các-tông 'cardboard',ắc-coóc-đê-ông 'accordion').

Diphthongs and triphthongs

[edit]
Rising VowelsRising-Falling VowelsFalling Vowels
nucleus (V)/w/ on-glides/w/ + V + off-glide/j/ off-glides/w/ off-glides
fronte/wɛ/ oe/(q)ue*/wɛw/ oeo/(q)ueo*/ɛw/ eo
ê/we/ uê/ew/ êu
i/wi/ uy/wiw/ uyu/iw/ iu
ia/iê/yê*/wiə̯/ uyê/uya*/iə̯w/ iêu/yêu*
centrala/wa/ oa/(q)ua*/waj/ oai/(q)uai,/waw/ oao/(q)uao*/aj/ ai/aw/ ao
ă/wă/ oă/(q)uă*/wăj/ oay/(q)uay*/ăj/ ay/ăw/ au
â/wə̆/ uâ/wə̆j/ uây/ə̆j/ ây/ə̆w/ âu
ơ/wə/ uơ/əj/ ơi/əw/ ơu
ư/ɨj/ ưi/ɨw/ ưu
ưa/ươ*/ɨə̯j/ ươi/ɨə̯w/ ươu
backo/ɔj/ oi
ô/oj/ ôi
u/uj/ ui
ua/uô*/uə̯j/ uôi

Notes:

The glide/w/ is written:

  • ⟨u⟩ after/k/ (spelled⟨q⟩ in this instance)
  • ⟨o⟩ in front of⟨a⟩,⟨ă⟩, or⟨e⟩ except after⟨q⟩
  • ⟨o⟩ following⟨a⟩ and⟨e⟩
  • ⟨u⟩ in all other cases;/ăw/ is written as⟨au⟩ instead of *⟨ăw⟩ (cf.⟨ao⟩/aw/), and that/i/ is written as⟨y⟩ after⟨y⟩

The off-glide/j/ is written as⟨i⟩ except after⟨â⟩ and⟨ă⟩, where it is written as⟨y⟩;/ăj/ is written as⟨ay⟩ instead of *⟨ăy⟩ (cf.ai/aj/).

The diphthong/iə̯/ is written:

  • ⟨ia⟩ at the end of a syllable:/mǐə̯/ =mía 'sugar cane'
  • iê before a consonant or off-glide:/mǐə̯ŋ/ =miếng 'piece';/sīə̯w/ =xiêu 'to slope, slant'
The⟨i⟩ of the diphthong changes to⟨y⟩ after⟨u⟩:
  • ⟨ya⟩:/xwīə̯/ =khuya 'late at night'
  • ⟨yê⟩:/xwīə̯n/ =khuyên 'to advise'
⟨iê⟩ changes to⟨yê⟩ at the beginning of a syllable (⟨ia⟩ does not change):
  • /īə̯n/ =yên 'calm';/ǐə̯w/yếu 'weak, feeble'

The diphthong/uə̯/ is written:

  • ⟨ua⟩ at the end of a syllable:/mūə̯/ =mua 'to buy'
  • ⟨uô⟩ before a consonant or off-glide:/mūə̯n/ =muôn 'ten thousand';/sūə̯j/ =xuôi 'down'

The diphthong/ɨə̯/ is written:

  • ⟨ưa⟩ at the end of a syllable:/mɨ̄ə̯/ =mưa 'to rain'
  • ⟨ươ⟩ before a consonant or off-glide:/mɨ̄ə̯ŋ/ =mương 'irrigation canal';/tɨ̌ə̯j/ =tưới 'to water, irrigate, sprinkle'

Tone marks

[edit]

Vietnamese is atonal language, so the meaning of each word depends on the pitch in which it is pronounced. Tones are marked in the IPA assuprasegmentals following the phonemic value. Some tones are also associated with aglottalization pattern.

There are six distinct tones in the standard northern dialect. The first one ("level tone") is not marked and the other five are indicated by diacritics applied to the vowel part of the syllable. The tone names are chosen such that the name of each tone is spoken in the tone it identifies.

In the south, there is a merging of thehỏi andngã tones, in effect leaving five tones.[citation needed]

OrderDiacriticSymbolInput keysNameIPA diacriticVowels with diacritic
TELEXVNI
1unmarkedN/AZ*0*ngangmid level,˧A/a, Ă/ă, Â/â, E/e, Ê/ê, I/i, O/o, Ô/ô, Ơ/ơ, U/u, Ư/ư, Y/y
2acute accentáS1sắchigh rising,˧˥Á/á, Ắ/ắ, Ấ/ấ, É/é, Ế/ế, Í/í, Ó/ó, Ố/ố, Ớ/ớ, Ú/ú, Ứ/ứ, Ý/ý
3grave accentàF2huyềnlow falling,˨˩À/à, Ằ/ằ, Ầ/ầ, È/è, Ề/ề, Ì/ì, Ò/ò, Ồ/ồ, Ờ/ờ, Ù/ù, Ừ/ừ, Ỳ/ỳ
4hook aboveảR3hỏimid falling,˧˩ (Northern); dipping,˨˩˥ (Southern)Ả/ả, Ẳ/ẳ, Ẩ/ẩ, Ẻ/ẻ, Ể/ể, Ỉ/ỉ, Ỏ/ỏ, Ổ/ổ, Ở/ở, Ủ/ủ, Ử/ử, Ỷ/ỷ
5perispomeni[a]ãX4ngãglottalized rising,˧˥ˀ (Northern); slightly lengtheneddấu hỏi tone (Southern)Ã/ã, Ẵ/ẵ, Ẫ/ẫ, Ẽ/ẽ, Ễ/ễ, Ĩ/ĩ, Õ/õ, Ỗ/ỗ, Ỡ/ỡ, Ũ/ũ, Ữ/ữ, Ỹ/ỹ
6dot belowạJ5nặngglottalized falling,˧˨ˀ (Northern); low rising,˩˧ (Southern)Ạ/ạ, Ặ/ặ, Ậ/ậ, Ẹ/ẹ, Ệ/ệ, Ị/ị, Ọ/ọ, Ộ/ộ, Ợ/ợ, Ụ/ụ, Ự/ự, Ỵ/ỵ
  • *:Z (inTELEX) and0 (inVNI) keys are used to remove the mark. For example, in VNI,U2 →⟨ù⟩, then press0 →⟨u⟩.
  • Unmarked vowels are pronounced with a level voice, in the middle of the speaking range.
  • The grave accent indicates that the speaker should start somewhat low and drop slightly in tone, with the voice becoming increasinglybreathy.
  • The hook indicates in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker should start in the middle range and fall, but in Southern Vietnamese that the speaker should start somewhat low and fall, then rise (as when asking a question in English).
  • In the North, a perispomeni indicates that the speaker should start mid, break off (with aglottal stop), then start again and rise like a question in tone. In the South, it is realized identically to the Hỏi tone.
  • The acute accent indicates that the speaker should start mid and rise sharply in tone.
  • The dot or cross signifies in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker starts low and fall lower in tone, with the voice becoming increasinglycreaky and ending in aglottal stop.

In syllables where the vowel part consists of more than one vowel (such as diphthongs and triphthongs), the placement of the tone is still a matter of debate. Generally, there are two methodologies, an "old style" and a "new style". While the "old style" emphasizes aesthetics by placing the tone mark as close as possible to the center of the word (by placing the tone mark on the last vowel if an ending consonant part exists and on the next-to-last vowel if the ending consonant does not exist, as inhóa,hủy), the "new style" emphasizes linguistic principles and tries to apply the tone mark on the main vowel (as inhoá,huỷ). In both styles, when one vowel already has a quality diacritic on it, the tone mark must be applied to it as well, regardless of where it appears in the syllable (thusthuế is acceptable while*thúê is not). In the case of the⟨ươ⟩ diphthong, the mark is placed on the⟨ơ⟩. The⟨u⟩ in⟨qu⟩ is considered part of the consonant. Currently, the new style is usually used in textbooks published byNhà Xuất bản Giáo dục, while most people still prefer the old style in casual uses. Among Overseas Vietnamese communities, the old style is predominant for all purposes.

In lexical ordering, differences in letters are treated as primary, differences in tone markings as secondary and differences in case as tertiary differences. (Letters include for instance⟨a⟩ and⟨ă⟩ but not⟨ẳ⟩. Older dictionaries also treated digraphs and trigraphs like⟨ch⟩ and⟨ngh⟩ as base letters.[17]) Ordering according to primary and secondary differences proceeds syllable by syllable. According to this principle, a dictionary liststuân thủ beforetuần chay because the secondary difference in the first syllable takes precedence over the primary difference in the second syllable.

Structure

[edit]

In the past, syllables in multisyllabic words were concatenated with hyphens, but this practice has died out and hyphenation is now reserved for word-borrowings from other languages. A written syllable consists of at most three parts, in the following order from left to right:

  1. An optional beginning consonant part
  2. A required vowelsyllable nucleus and the tone mark, if needed, applied above or below it
  3. An ending consonant part, can only be one of the following:⟨c⟩,⟨ch⟩,⟨m⟩,⟨n⟩,⟨ng⟩,⟨nh⟩,⟨p⟩,⟨t⟩, or nothing.[18]

History

[edit]
Further information:History of writing in Vietnam andVietnamese language and computers
A page from Alexandre de Rhodes' 1651 dictionary

Since the beginning of theChinese rule 111 BC, literature, government papers, scholarly works, and religious scripture were all written inclassical Chinese (漢文Hán văn) while indigenous writing withchữ Hán started around the ninth century.[19] Since the 12th century, several Vietnamese words started to be written inchữ Nôm, usingChinese characters. The system was based on Chinese characters, but was also supplemented with Vietnamese-invented characters to represent native Vietnamese words. These characters adapted or created using methods such as creating phono-semantic compounds (形聲 hình thanh), double-phonetic compounds (會音 hội âm), and borrowing the character for its pronunciation (假借 giả tá).

Name

[edit]

People have called the Latinized script of Vietnamesechữ Quốc ngữ at least since 1867.[20] In 1867, scholarTrương Vĩnh Ký published two grammar books. The first book isMẹo luật dạy học tiếng pha-lang-sa (Tips to teach and learn French), a Vietnamese book written in chữ Quốc ngữ about French grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was calledchữ quốc ngự (notngữ). The second book isAbrégé de grammaire annamite (Simplification of Annamite grammar), a French book about Vietnamese grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was called "l’alphabet européen" (European alphabet), les caractères latins (Latin characters). OnGia Dinh Bao April 15th issue of 1867, when mentioned the French book about Vietnamese grammar, the namechữ quốc ngữ was used to indicate the Latinized script of Vietnamese.[21]

Creation ofchữ Quốc ngữ

[edit]

As early as 1620, with the work ofFrancisco de Pina, Portuguese and ItalianJesuitmissionaries in Vietnam began using Latin script to transcribe the Vietnamese language as an assistance for learning the language.[1][3] The work was continued by the AvignoneseAlexandre de Rhodes. Building on previous dictionaries byGaspar do Amaral andAntónio Barbosa, Rhodes compiled theDictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum, a Vietnamese–Portuguese–Latin dictionary, which was later printed in Rome in 1651, using their spelling system.[1][22] These efforts led eventually to the development of the present Vietnamese alphabet. For 200 years,chữ Quốc ngữ was used within the Catholic community.[23][24] However, works written in the Vietnamese alphabet were in the minority and Catholic works in chữ Nôm were significantly more widespread. Chữ Nôm was the primary writing system used by Vietnamese Catholics.[24]

Colonial period

[edit]

In 1910, theFrench colonial administration enforcedchữ Quốc ngữ.[25] The Latin alphabet then became a means to publish Vietnamese popular literature, which was disparaged as vulgar by the Chinese-educated imperial elites.[26] Historian Pamela A. Pears asserted that by instituting the Latin alphabet in Vietnam, the French cut the Vietnamese from their traditional Hán Nôm literature.[27] An important reason why Latin script became the standard writing system in Vietnam but not inCambodia andLaos, which were both dominated by the French for a similar amount of time under the same colonial framework, had to do with theNguyễn Emperors of Vietnam heavily promoting its usage.[28] According to the historianLiam Kelley in his 2016 work "Emperor Thành Thái’s Educational Revolution" neither the French nor the revolutionaries had enough power to spread the usage ofchữ Quốc ngữ down to the village level.[28] It was by imperial decree in 1906 of EmperorThành Thái, that parents could decide whether their children will follow a curriculum inHán văn (漢文) orNam âm (南音, 'Southern sound', the contemporary Vietnamese name forchữ Quốc ngữ).[28] This decree was issued at the same time when other social changes, such as the cutting of long male hair, were occurring.[28] The main reason for the popularisation of the Latin alphabet in Vietnam/Đại Nam during the Nguyễn dynasty (theFrench protectorates of Annam andTonkin) was because of the pioneering efforts by intellectuals fromFrench Cochinchina combined with the progressive and scientific policies of the French government in French Indochina, that created the momentum for the usage ofchữ Quốc ngữ to spread.[28]

From the first days it was recognized that the Chinese language was a barrier between us and the natives; the education provided by means of the hieroglyphic characters was completely beyond us; this writing makes possible only with difficulty transmitting to the population the diverse ideas which are necessary for them at the level of their new political and commercial situation. Consequently we are obliged to follow the traditions of our own system of education; it is the only one which can bring close to us the Annamites of the colony by inculcating in them the principles of European civilization and isolating them from the hostile influence of our neighbors.[29]

— In a letter dated January 15, 1866, Paulin Vial, Directeur du Cabinet du Gouverneur de la Cochinchine

Since the 1920s, the Vietnamese mostly usechữ Quốc ngữ, and new Vietnamese terms for new items or words are often calqued from Hán Nôm. Some French had originally planned to replace Vietnamese with French, but this never was a serious project, given the small number of French settlers compared with the native population. The French had to reluctantly accept the use ofchữ Quốc ngữ to write Vietnamese since this writing system, created by Portuguese missionaries, is based on Portuguese orthography, not French.[30]

Mass education

[edit]

Between 1907 and 1908, the short-livedTonkin Free School promulgatedchữ Quốc ngữ and taught French language to the general population.

In 1917, the French system suppressed Vietnam'sConfucian examination system, viewed as an aristocratic system linked with the "ancient regime", thereby forcing Vietnamese elites to educate their offspring in the French language education system. EmperorKhải Định declared the traditional writing system abolished in 1918.[26]While traditional nationalists favoured the Confucian examination system and the use of chữ Hán, Vietnamese revolutionaries, progressive nationalists, and pro-French elites viewed the French education system as a means to "liberate" the Vietnamese from old Chinese domination and the unsatisfactory "outdated" Confucian examination system, to democratize education and to help bridge Vietnamese to European philosophies.

The French colonial system then set up another educational system, teaching Vietnamese as a first language usingchữ Quốc ngữ in primary school and then the French language (taught inchữ Quốc ngữ). Hundreds of thousands of textbooks for primary education began to be published inchữ Quốc ngữ, with the unintentional result of turning the script into the popular medium for the expression for Vietnamese culture.[31]

Late 20th century to present

[edit]

Typesetting and printing Vietnamese has been challenging due to its number of accents/diacritics.[32][33][34] This had led to the use of accent and diacritic-less names inOverseas Vietnamese, such asViet instead of the properViệt. Contemporary Vietnamese texts sometimes include words which have not been adapted to modern Vietnamese orthography, especially for documents written inchữ Hán. The Vietnamese language itself has been likened to a system akin toruby characters elsewhere in Asia. French, which left a mark on the Vietnamese language in the form ofloanwords and other influences, is no longer as widespread in Vietnam, withEnglish orInternational English the preferred European language for commerce.

Computing

[edit]
Main article:Vietnamese language and computers
Different ways in which tone marks can be presented on letters that already have diacritic, e.g. (`) on letter ê when computerising Vietnamese

The universal character setUnicode has full support for the Latin Vietnamese writing system, although it does not have a separate segment for it. The required characters that other languages use are scattered throughout theBasic Latin,Latin-1 Supplement,Latin Extended-A andLatin Extended-B blocks; those that remain (such as the letters withdau hoi) are placed in theLatin Extended Additional block. AnASCII-based writing convention,Vietnamese Quoted Readable and several byte-based encodings includingVSCII (TCVN), VNI,VISCII andWindows-1258 were widely used before Unicode became popular. Most new documents now exclusively use the Unicode formatUTF-8.

Unicode allows the user to choose betweenprecomposed characters andcombining characters in inputting Vietnamese. Because in the past some fonts implemented combining characters in a nonstandard way (seeVerdana font), most people use precomposed characters when composing Vietnamese-language documents (except on Windows whereWindows-1258 used combining characters).

Most keyboards on modern phone and computer operating systems, including iOS,[35] Android[36] and MacOS,[37] have now supported the Vietnamese language and direct input of diacritics by default. Previously, Vietnamese users had to manually installfree software such asUnikey on computers or Laban Key on phones to type Vietnamese diacritics. These keyboards support input methods such asTelex.

Unicode code points
[edit]

The following table provides Unicode code points for all non-ASCII Vietnamese letters.

UnmarkedGraveHookPerispomeniAcuteDot
̀ (U+0300)̉ (U+0309)̃ (U+0303)́ (U+0301)̣ (U+0323)
Uppercase letters
AÀ (U+00C0)Ả (U+1EA2)Ã (U+00C3)Á (U+00C1)Ạ (U+1EA0)
Ă (U+0102)Ằ (U+1EB0)Ẳ (U+1EB2)Ẵ (U+1EB4)Ắ (U+1EAE)Ặ (U+1EB6)
 (U+00C2)Ầ (U+1EA6)Ẩ (U+1EA8)Ẫ (U+1EAA)Ấ (U+1EA4)Ậ (U+1EAC)
Đ (U+0110)
EÈ (U+00C8)Ẻ (U+1EBA)Ẽ (U+1EBC)É (U+00C9)Ẹ (U+1EB8)
Ê (U+00CA)Ề (U+1EC0)Ể (U+1EC2)Ễ (U+1EC4)Ế (U+1EBE)Ệ (U+1EC6)
IÌ (U+00CC)Ỉ (U+1EC8)Ĩ (U+0128)Í (U+00CD)Ị (U+1ECA)
OÒ (U+00D2)Ỏ (U+1ECE)Õ (U+00D5)Ó (U+00D3)Ọ (U+1ECC)
Ô (U+00D4)Ồ (U+1ED2)Ổ (U+1ED4)Ỗ (U+1ED6)Ố (U+1ED0)Ộ (U+1ED8)
Ơ (U+01A0)Ờ (U+1EDC)Ở (U+1EDE)Ỡ (U+1EE0)Ớ (U+1EDA)Ợ (U+1EE2)
UÙ (U+00D9)Ủ (U+1EE6)Ũ (U+0168)Ú (U+00DA)Ụ (U+1EE4)
Ư (U+01AF)Ừ (U+1EEA)Ử (U+1EEC)Ữ (U+1EEE)Ứ (U+1EE8)Ự (U+1EF0)
YỲ (U+1EF2)Ỷ (U+1EF6)Ỹ (U+1EF8)Ý (U+00DD)Ỵ (U+1EF4)
Lowercase letters
aà (U+00E0)ả (U+1EA3)ã (U+00E3)á (U+00E1)ạ (U+1EA1)
ă (U+0103)ằ (U+1EB1)ẳ (U+1EB3)ẵ (U+1EB5)ắ (U+1EAF)ặ (U+1EB7)
â (U+00E2)ầ (U+1EA7)ẩ (U+1EA9)ẫ (U+1EAB)ấ (U+1EA5)ậ (U+1EAD)
đ (U+0111)
eè (U+00E8)ẻ (U+1EBB)ẽ (U+1EBD)é (U+00E9)ẹ (U+1EB9)
ê (U+00EA)ề (U+1EC1)ể (U+1EC3)ễ (U+1EC5)ế (U+1EBF)ệ (U+1EC7)
iì (U+00EC)ỉ (U+1EC9)ĩ (U+0129)í (U+00ED)ị (U+1ECB)
oò (U+00F2)ỏ (U+1ECF)õ (U+00F5)ó (U+00F3)ọ (U+1ECD)
ô (U+00F4)ồ (U+1ED3)ổ (U+1ED5)ỗ (U+1ED7)ố (U+1ED1)ộ (U+1ED9)
ơ (U+01A1)ờ (U+1EDD)ở (U+1EDF)ỡ (U+1EE1)ớ (U+1EDB)ợ (U+1EE3)
uù (U+00F9)ủ (U+1EE7)ũ (U+0169)ú (U+00FA)ụ (U+1EE5)
ư (U+01B0)ừ (U+1EEB)ử (U+1EED)ữ (U+1EEF)ứ (U+1EE9)ự (U+1EF1)
yỳ (U+1EF3)ỷ (U+1EF7)ỹ (U+1EF9)ý (U+00FD)ỵ (U+1EF5)

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^Mistakenly encoded in Unicode (and Vietnamese modifications ofISO-8859-1 such asVISCII,VPS orWindows-1258) as thetilde. However, the tilde (in a contemporaneousPortuguese typographical style with a flattened left-hand side) was used for something different inMiddle Vietnamese, the so-calledVietnamese apex, while the tone mark was initially equated with the Greek circumflex (i.e.perispomeni), despite the "Latincircumflex" also being used for a different purpose as it still is today.[16]

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcdJacques, Roland (2002).Portuguese Pioneers of Vietnamese Linguistics Prior to 1650 – Pionniers Portugais de la Linguistique Vietnamienne Jusqu'en 1650 (in English and French). Bangkok, Thailand: Orchid Press.ISBN 974-8304-77-9.
  2. ^Jacques, Roland (2004). "Bồ Đào Nha và công trình sáng chế chữ quốc ngữ: Phải chăng cần viết lại lịch sử?" Translated by Nguyễn Đăng Trúc. InCác nhà truyền giáo Bồ Đào Nha và thời kỳ đầu của Giáo hội Công giáo Việt Nam (Quyển 1) –Les missionnaires portugais et les débuts de l'Eglise catholique au Viêt-nam (Tome 1) (in Vietnamese & French). Reichstett, France: Định Hướng Tùng Thư.ISBN 2-912554-26-8.
  3. ^abTrần, Quốc Anh; Phạm, Thị Kiều Ly (October 2019).Từ Nước Mặn đến Roma: Những đóng góp của các giáo sĩ Dòng Tên trong quá trình La tinh hoá tiếng Việt ở thế kỷ 17. Conference 400 năm hình thành và phát triển chữ Quốc ngữ trong lịch sử loan báo Tin Mừng tại Việt Nam. Ho Chi Minh City: Ủy ban Văn hóa,Catholic Bishops' Conference of Vietnam.
  4. ^Tran (2022).
  5. ^Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias, eds. (2021).The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia(PDF). De Gruyter. pp. 898–899.doi:10.1515/9783110558142.ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2.S2CID 242359233.
  6. ^Haudricourt, André-Georges. 2010."The Origin of the Peculiarities of the Vietnamese Alphabet."Mon-Khmer Studies 39: 89–104. Translated from: Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1949. "L'origine Des Particularités de L'alphabet Vietnamien." Dân Viêt-Nam 3: 61–68.
  7. ^Friederichsen, Jakob Rupert (2009).Opening Up Knowledge Production Through Participatory Research?: Agricultural Research for Vietnam's Northern Uplands. Peter Lang. p. 126.ISBN 978-3-631-58842-0. Retrieved1 November 2024.[6.1.2 French colonial science in Vietnam]: With the colonial era, deep changes took place in education, communication, and ... French colonizers installed a modern European system of education to replace the literary and Confucianism-based model, they promoted a romanized Vietnamese script (Quốc Ngữ) to replace the Sino-Vietnamese characters (Hán Nôm)
  8. ^"Vietnam Alphabet". vietnamesetypography.
  9. ^"Do you know How to pronounce Igrec?".HowToPronounce.com. Retrieved2017-10-30.
  10. ^André-Georges Haudricourt."The two b's in the Vietnamese dictionary of Alexandre de Rhodes".HAL, Alexis Michaud dịch, trang 1.
  11. ^Alexandre de Rhodes.Dictionarium Anamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum. Romae, Sacra Congregationis de propaganda fide, năm 1651, trang chứa cột 65, cột 191 trong phần chính văn của sách (sách không được đánh số trang).
  12. ^Kenneth J. Gregerson. "A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology".Bulletin de la Société des Études Indochinoises, Nouvelle Série – Tome XLIV, Nº 2, 1969, page 151, 173.
  13. ^André-Georges Haudricourt.“The origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabet”.HAL, Alexis Michaud dịch, trang 12.
  14. ^Thompson, Laurence C. (July 1959). "Saigon Phonemics".Language.35 (3):454–476.doi:10.2307/411232.JSTOR 411232.
  15. ^Wills, Tarrin (2024-04-09)."Clarification of use and forms of certain combining characters"(PDF).UTC L2/24-103.
  16. ^Nguyen, Minh; Miller, Kirk (2024-04-05)."Conflict with the Unicode tilde"(PDF).Annotation request for Vietnamese apex. pp. 2–3.UTC L2/24-111. [Note that equating specifically U+1DD1 with the Vietnamese Apex, as proposed in that document, was opposed by theMedieval Unicode Font Initiative.][15]
  17. ^See for exampleLê Bá Khanh; Lê Bá Kông (1998) [1975].Vietnamese–English / English–Vietnamese Dictionary (7th ed.). New York City:Hippocrene Books.ISBN 0-87052-924-2.
  18. ^"vietnamese Alphabet".Omniglot.com. 2014.
  19. ^Kornicki 2017, p. 568.
  20. ^John DeFrancis.Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam. The Hague, Mouton Publishers, 1977, page 82–84.
  21. ^John DeFrancis.Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam. The Hague, Mouton Publishers, 1977, page 82.
  22. ^Tran, Anh Q. (October 2018)."The Historiography of the Jesuits in Vietnam: 1615–1773 and 1957–2007".Jesuit Historiography Online. Brill.
  23. ^Li 2020, p. 106.
  24. ^abOstrowski, Brian Eugene (2010)."The Rise of Christian Nôm Literature in Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Fusing European Content and Local Expression". In Wilcox, Wynn (ed.).Vietnam and the West: New Approaches. Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications, Cornell university Press. pp. 23, 38.ISBN 9780877277828.
  25. ^"Quoc-ngu | Vietnamese writing system".Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved2019-04-13.
  26. ^abNguyên Tùng, "Langues, écritures et littératures au Viêt-nam",Aséanie, Sciences humaines en Asie du Sud-Est, Vol. 2000/5, pp. 135-149.
  27. ^Pamela A. Pears (2006).Remnants of Empire in Algeria and Vietnam: Women, Words and War. Lexington Books. p. 18.ISBN 0-7391-2022-0. Retrieved2010-11-28.
  28. ^abcdeNguyễn Quang Duy (12 September 2018)."Quốc ngữ và nỗ lực 'thoát Hán' của các vua nhà Nguyễn" (in Vietnamese). Người Việt Daily News. Retrieved15 September 2021.
  29. ^Li 2020, p. 107.
  30. ^Trần Bích San."Thi cử và giáo dục Việt Nam dưới thời thuộc Pháp" (in Vietnamese). Archived fromthe original on 2020-09-24. Retrieved2020-09-24. Note 3. "The French had to accept reluctantly the existence of chữ quốc ngữ. The propagation of chữ quốc ngữ in Cochinchina was, in fact, not without resistance [by French authority or pro-French Vietnamese elite] [...] Chữ quốc ngữ was created by Portuguese missionaries according to the phonemic orthography of Portuguese language. The Vietnamese could not use chữ quốc ngữ to learn French script. The French would mispronounce chữ quốc ngữ in French orthography, particularly people's names and place names. Thus, the French constantly disparaged chữ quốc ngữ because of its uselessness in helping with the propagation of French script."
  31. ^Anderson, Benedict. 1991.Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. pp. 127-128.
  32. ^Wellisch, Hans H. (1978).The Conversion of Scripts, Its Nature, History, and Utilization. Wiley.ISBN 978-0-471-01620-5.
  33. ^Language Monthly. Praetorius. 1987.
  34. ^Sassoon, Rosemary (1995).The acquisition of a second writing system. Internet Archive. Oxford [England] : Intellect.ISBN 978-1-871516-43-2.
  35. ^Anh, Hao (2021-09-21)."Hướng dẫn gõ tiếng Việt trên iOS 15 bằng tính năng lướt phím QuickPath".VietNamNet (in Vietnamese). Retrieved2022-03-20.
  36. ^"Set up Gboard on Android".Google Support. Retrieved2022-03-20.
  37. ^Phan, Kim Long."UniKey in macOS and iOS".UniKey. Retrieved2022-03-20.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Gregerson, Kenneth J. (1969). A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology.Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises,44, 135–193. (Published version of the author's MA thesis, University of Washington). (Reprinted 1981, Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics).
  • Haudricourt, André-Georges (1949)."Origine des particularités de l'alphabet vietnamien (English translation as: The origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabet)"(PDF).Dân Việt-Nam.3:61–68.
  • Healy, Dana.(2003).Teach Yourself Vietnamese, Hodder Education, London.
  • Kornicki, Peter (2017), "Sino-Vietnamese literature", in Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (eds.),The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 568–578,ISBN 978-0-199-35659-1.
  • Li, Yu (2020).The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Routledge.ISBN 978-1-00-069906-7.
  • Nguyen, Đang Liêm. (1970).Vietnamese pronunciation. PALI language texts: Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.ISBN 0-87022-462-X.
  • Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1955).Quốc-ngữ: The modern writing system in Vietnam. Washington, D. C.: Author.
  • Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà (1992). "Vietnamese phonology and graphemic borrowings from Chinese: The Book of 3,000 Characters revisited".Mon-Khmer Studies.20:163–182.
  • Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.),The world's writing systems, (pp. 691–699). New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
  • Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1997).Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.ISBN 1-55619-733-0.
  • Pham, Andrea Hoa. (2003).Vietnamese tone: A new analysis. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Routledge. (Published version of author's 2001 PhD dissertation, University of Florida: Hoa, Pham.Vietnamese tone: Tone is not pitch).ISBN 0-415-96762-7.
  • Phạm, Thị Kiều Ly (2022).Histoire de l’écriture romanisée du vietnamien (1615−1919). Les Indes savantes.ISBN 9782846546164.
  • Sassoon, Rosemary (1995).The Acquisition of a Second Writing System (illustrated, reprint ed.). Intellect Books.ISBN 1871516439. Retrieved24 April 2014.
  • Thompson, Laurence E. (1991).A Vietnamese reference grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.ISBN 0-8248-1117-8. (Original work published 1965).
  • Tran, Anh Q. (2022). "Catholicism and the Development of the Vietnamese Alphabet, 1620–1898".Journal of Vietnamese Studies.17 (2–3):9–37.doi:10.1525/vs.2022.17.2-3.9.
  • Wellisch, Hans H. (1978).The conversion of scripts, its nature, history and utilization. Information sciences series (illustrated ed.). Wiley.ISBN 0471016209. Retrieved24 April 2014.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Nguyen, A. M. (2006).Let's learn the Vietnamese alphabet. Las Vegas: Viet Baby.ISBN 0-9776482-0-6
  • Shih, Virginia Jing-yi.Quoc Ngu Revolution: A Weapon of Nationalism in Vietnam. 1991.

External links

[edit]
List of letters
Vowels
Elemental (Unigraphs)
  • a
  • ă
  • â
  • e
  • ê
  • i
  • o
  • ô
  • ơ
  • u
  • ư
  • y
Combinative (Multigraphs)
  • ai
  • ao
  • au
  • ay
  • âu
  • ây
  • eo
  • ey
  • êu
  • iê
  • iu
  • iêu
  • oa
  • oă
  • oe
  • oi
  • oo
  • oy
  • oai
  • ôi
  • ơi
  • ua
  • uâ
  • uê
  • ui
  • uô
  • uơ
  • uy
  • uôi
  • uyê
  • ưa
  • ưi
  • ươ
  • ưu
  • ươi
Consonants
Unigraphs
  • b
  • ꞗ
  • c
  • d
  • đ
  • f
  • g
  • h
  • j
  • k
  • l
  • m
  • n
  • p
  • q
  • r
  • s
  • t
  • v
  • w
  • x
  • y
  • z
Digraphs
  • ch
  • dz
  • gh
  • gi
  • kh
  • ng
  • nh
  • ph
  • qu
  • th
  • tr
Trigraphs
  • ngh
Standards
Related
  • Italicized entries are officially unrecognized, but in use in some purposes;y is treated as a semi-vowel

even though "q" is fully a consonant, it always appears in digraph-form "qu" when in combination with a vowel

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