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ǃKung/ˈkʊŋ/[2][3]KUUNG (ǃXun), also known asJu (/ˈdʒuː/JOO), is adialect continuum (language complex) spoken inNamibia,Botswana, andAngola by theǃKung people, constituting two or three languages. Together with theǂʼAmkoe language, ǃKung forms theKxʼa language family. ǃKung constituted one of the branches of the putativeKhoisan language family, and was calledNorthern Khoisan in that scenario, but the unity of Khoisan has never been demonstrated and is now regarded as spurious. Nonetheless, the anthropological term "Khoisan" has been retained as an umbrella term for click languages in general.[4]
ǃKung is famous for its manyclicks, such as theǃ in its name, and has some of the most complex inventories of bothconsonants andvowels in the world. It also hastone andnasalization. For a description, seeJuǀʼhoan. To pronounceǃXuun (pronounced[ǃ͡χũː˦˥] in Western ǃKung/ǃXuun) one makes aclick sound before thex sound (which is like a Scottish or Germanch), followed by a longnasalu vowel with a high rising tone.[a]
The termǃKung, or variants thereof, is typically used when considering the dialects to constitute a single language;Ju tends to be used when considering them as a small language family.ǃKung is also sometimes used for the northern/northwestern dialects, as opposed to the well documentedJuǀʼhoan dialects in the south(east); however speakers of nearly all dialects call themselvesǃKung.
The spellingsǃXun andǃXuun seen in recent literature are related to the Juǀʼhoan form spelledǃXʼu(u)n in the 1975 orthography, orǃKu(u)n in current orthography. Additional spellings areǃHu, ǃKhung, ǃKu, Kung, Qxü, ǃung, ǃXo, Xû, ǃXû, Xun, ǃXung, ǃXũũ, ǃXun, ʗhũ:,[5] and additional spellings ofJu areDzu, Juu, Zhu.
If the ǃKung dialects are counted together, they would make the third-most-populous click language afterKhoekhoe andSandawe. The most populous ǃKung variety, Juǀʼhoan, is perhaps tied for third place withNaro.
Estimates vary, but there are probably around 15,000 speakers. Counting is difficult because speakers are scattered on farms, interspersed with speakers of other languages, butBrenzinger (2011) counts 9,000 in Namibia, 2,000 in Botswana, 3,700 in South Africa and 1,000 in Angola (down from perhaps 8,000 in 1975).
Until the mid–late twentieth century, the northern dialects were widespread in southern and central Angola. However, most ǃKung fled theAngolan Civil War to Namibia (primarily to theCaprivi Strip), where they were recruited into the South African Defence Force special forces against the Angolan Army andSWAPO. At the end of theBorder War, more than one thousand fighters and their families were relocated toSchmidtsdrift in South Africa amid uncertainty over their future in Namibia.[6] After more than a decade living in precarious conditions, the post-Apartheid government bought and donated land for a permanent settlement at Platfontein, near Schmidtsdrift.[7]
Only Juǀʼhoan is written, and it is not sufficiently intelligible with the Northwestern dialects for the same literature to be used for both.
The better-known ǃKung dialects areTsumkwe Juǀʼhoan,Ekoka ǃKung,ǃʼOǃKung, andǂKxʼauǁʼein. Scholars distinguish between eleven and fifteen dialects, but the boundaries are unclear. There is a clear distinction between North/Northwest vs South/Southeast, but also a diverse Central group that is poorly attested.
(E1) Juǀʼhoan (ju-ǀʼhoan(-si); Tsumkwe district, N Namibia, & Bots adjacent)
(E2) Dikundu (ǃxun, ju-ǀʼhoa(si); Dikundu, W Caprivi)
(E3)ǂKxʼauǁʼein (ju-ǀʼhoan(-si), ǃxun, ǂxʼāōǁʼàèn "Northern people"; Gobabis district, E Namibia)
Heine & König (2015, p. 324) state that speakers of all Northwestern dialects "understand one another to quite some extent" but that they do not understand any of the Southeastern dialects.
Sands (2010) classifies ǃKung dialects into four clusters, with the first two being quite close:
ǃKung
Northern ǃKung: Southern Angola, around the Cunene, Cubango, Cuito, and Cuando rivers, but with many refugees now in Namibia:
ǃʼOǃKung
Maligo
North-Central ǃKung: Namibia, between the Ovambo River and the Angolan border, around the tributaries of the Okavango River east of Rundu to theEtosha Pan:
A preliminary classification of the ǃXũũ and Žuǀ'hõasi dialects by Snyman (1997):[8]
ǃKung
Southern (Žuǀʼhõansi)
Epukiro Žuǀʼhõansi is bounded by the Omuramba Otjozondjou, stretching along the Omuramba Epukiro and north of the Sandfontein Omuramba up to Ghanzi in Botswana.
Tsumkwe Žuǀʼhõansi is spoken east of 20° longitude from the Omuramba Otjozondjou up to the Kaudom Omuramba and extending to Samagaigai in the west and 22° longitude in Botswana.
Rundu Žuǀʼhõansi presumably occurs south of the Okavango river from Rupara south-eastward to Ncaute and then north of the Omuramba Kaudom.
Omatako Žuǀʼhõansi consists of a northern dialect probably stretching from Ncaute southwards up to ca. 100 km South of Karakuwisa, and a southern dialect extending southwards to include the tributaries of the Omatako, viz. the Omambonde, Klein Omatako and Gunib. The dialects are probably spoken in an area about 40 km wide along the river. According to the map in Westhpal (1956), the upper reaches of the Gunib Omuramba as well as the Omuramba Otjozondjou, i.e. the area between Okozonduzu Omazera and Blignaut, was Haillom territory. This area roughly lies on the watershed between the Omatako and the Otjozondjou which served as a natural boundary between the Epukiro and Omatako Žuǀʼhõansi.
Central (ǃXũũ)
Grootfontein ǃXũũ is found in the district to the north-east, east and south-east of the town of Grootfontein.
Tsintsabis ǃXũũ is restricted to the North-eastern part of the Tsumeb district and adjacent areas in the western and eastern Mangetti.
Okongo ǃXũũ is found in the Okongo, Olokula, Ekoka and Otyolo area of Northeastern Owambo.
Northern (ǃXũũ)
Mpungu ǃXũũ occurs in the Tondoro and Mpungu area of the north-western Kavango and presumably in adjacent areas in Angola. This dialect clearly forms a transition from Okongo ǃXũũ to the other dialects of the Northern dialect cluster. Cuando/Quito ǃXũũ presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
Quilo/Cubango ǃXũũ presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
Cubango/Cunene ǃXũũ presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
The ancestral language, Proto-Juu or Proto-ǃXuun, had five places of click articulation:Dental,alveolar,palatal,alveolar lateral, andretroflex (*‼). The retroflex clicks have dropped out of Southeastern dialects such as Juǀʼhoan, but remain in Central ǃKung. In ǀʼAkhwe (Ekoka), the palatal click has become africated alveolar.[9][10]
^Snyman, Jan Winston. 1997. A preliminary classification of the ǃXũũ and Žuǀ'hõasi dialects. In Haacke, Wilfrid and Elderkin, Edward Derek (eds.),Namibian languages: reports and papers, 21-106. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag; University of Namibia (UNAM).
Brenzinger, Matthias (2011). Witzlack-Makarevich; Ernszt, M (eds.). "The twelve Modern Khoisan languages".Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Riezlern / Kleinwalsertal. Research in Khoisan Studies.29. Cologne, Germany: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
Haacke, W.H.G. (2009). "Khoesaan Languages". In Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (eds.).Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Oxford, UK: Elsevier. pp. 600–602.ISBN9780080877747.LCCN2008934269.
Heine, Bernd; König, Christa (2015).The ǃXun Language: A Dialect Grammar of Northern Khoisan. Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung, 33. Rüdiger Köppe.ISBN9783896458773.
Miller, A.L.; Holliday, J.; Howcroft, D.M.; Phillips, S.; Smith, B.; Tsz-Hum, T.; Scott, A. (2011). "The Phonetics of the Modern-Day Reflexes of the Proto-Palatal Click in Juu Languages".Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics.
Sands, Bonny (2010). Brenzinger, Matthias; König, Christa (eds.). "Juu Subgroups Based on Phonological Patterns".Khoisian Language and Linguistics: The Riezlern Symposium 2003. Cologne, Germany: Rüdiger Köppe:85–114.
Scott, Abigail; Miller, Amanda; Namaseb, Levi; Sands, Bonny; Shah, Sheena (June 2, 2010). "Retroflex Clicks in Two Dialects of ǃXung".University of Botswana, Department of African Languages.
