InNorse mythology,Óðr (inOld Norse: "soul", "mind", "wit" or "sense", and also called "the frenzied one" by Orchard[1]) orÓð, anglicized asÓdr orÓd, is a god associated with desire, passion and inspiration. TheProse Edda andHeimskringla, written in the 13th century bySnorri Sturluson, both describe Óðr as the husband ofFreyja and the father ofHnoss andGersemi. A number of theories have been proposed about Óðr, generally that he is ahypostasis of the godOdin due to their similarities.
TheOld NorsetheonymÓðr derives from an identical noun, meaning 'mind, wit, soul, sense' but also 'song, poetry', which in turn stems fromProto-Germanic *wōðaz, asubstantive of an adjective meaning 'possessed, inspired, delirious, raging'. It iscognate with other nouns from medieval Germanic languages, such as Old Englishwōð ('sound, noise; voice, song'), Old High Germanwuot ('thrill, violent agitation') andMiddle Dutchwoet ('rage, frenzy').Óðr is also etymologically related to the Old Norse theonymÓðinn, itself deriving from the stem *wōđa- attached to the suffix *-naz ('master of').[2][3]
PhilologistJan de Vries has argued that the Old Norse deities Óðinn and Óðr were probably originally connected (as in the doubletUllr–Ullinn), withÓðr (*wōđaz) being the elder form and the ultimate source of the nameÓðinn (*wōđa-naz). He further suggested that the god of rage Óðr–Óðinn stood in opposition to the god of glorious majesty Ullr–Ullinn in a similar manner to the Vedic contrast betweenVaruna andMitra.[4]
The adjective*wōđaz ultimately stems from aPre-Germanic form*uoh₂-tós, which is related to theProto-Celtic term*wātis, meaning 'seer, sooth-sayer' (cf.Gaulishwāteis,Old Irishfáith 'prophet') and*wātus, meaning 'prophesy, poetic inspiration' (cf. Old Irishfáth 'prophetic wisdom, maxims',Old Welshguaut 'prophetic verse, panegyric').[3][5][6] According to some scholars, theLatin termvātēs ('prophet, seer') is probably a Celtic loanword from the Gaulish language, making*uoh₂-tós ~ *ueh₂-tus ('god-inspired') a shared religious term common to Germanic and Celtic rather than an inherited word of earlierProto-Indo-European (PIE) origin.[3][5] In the case a borrowing scenario is excluded, a PIEetymon*(H)ueh₂-tis ('prophet, seer') can also be posited as the common ancestor of the attested Germanic, Celtic and Latin forms.[7]
Óðr is attested in the following sources:
Óðr is mentioned in stanza 25 of thePoetic Edda poemVöluspá. The name appears in a kenning for the major goddessFreyja; "Óð's girl" (Old NorseÓðs mey gefna), pointing to a relation with the goddess.[8]
Stanza 47 of the poemHyndluljóð contains mention of a figure by the name ofŒdi. There, Hyndla taunts Freyja, stating that Freyja had run to Œdi, "always full of desire". ScholarCarolyne Larrington says that the identity of Œdi is uncertain; it has been theorized that this may simply be Óðr, or that the figure may be another lover of Freyja's.[9] ScholarJohn Lindow describes this reference as "puzzling" as no other information is provided regarding the situation referred to by Hyndla.[10] ScholarBritt-Mari Näsström says that this reference likely does not refer to Óðr, rather being the product of the amendments ofSophus Bugge, and that the line simply points to Freyja's lust. Näsström comments that "perhaps the philologists of the nineteenth century were misled by their romantic intentions".[11]
In chapter 35 of theProse Edda bookGylfaginning, the enthroned figure ofHigh says that the goddess Freyja "was married to someone named" Óðr. High details that the two produced a daughter, Hnoss, and that this daughter was so fair that the termhnossir (meaning "treasures") derives from her name and is applied to whatever is "beautiful and precious." High adds that Óðr would go off traveling for extended periods, all the while Freyja would stay behind weeping tears ofred gold. However, Freyja would travel "among strange peoples" while looking for Óðr, and so had many names.[12] In chapter 36 ofGylfaginning, the stanza ofVöluspá mentioning Óðr is quoted.[13]
In chapter 20 of theProse Edda bookSkáldskaparmál, poetic names for the goddess Freyja are listed, including "wife of Óðr".[14] In chapter 36, a prose narrative points out than an excerpt of a work by theskaldEinarr Skúlason refers to Freyja as the wife of Óðr ("Óðr's bedfellow").[15] The same excerpt appears in chapter 49.[16] In chapter 75, Óðr is mentioned a final time in theProse Edda, where Freyja is cited as having "wept gold" for Óðr.[17]
In chapter 1 of theHeimskringla bookYnglinga saga,Snorri Sturluson refers to the two in aneuhemerized account, stating that Freyja had a husband named Óðr, two daughters named Hnoss and Gersemi, and that they were so beautiful that their names were used for "our most precious possessions" (both of their names literally mean "jewel").[18]
The name Óðr for Freyja's husband appears prominently in Völuspá 25, where it is said that "Óðs mey" was given to the giants. Nothing else is stated of him by this name in the Eddic poems. In Gylfaginning, Snorri briefly states that Óðr traveled to many nations and that Freyja searched for him in earnest, weeping as she went. Óðr is often theorized as somehow connected to Odin (Old Norse:Óðinn), the head of theÆsir in Norse mythology, by way ofetymological similarities between the two names (Lindow states that the linguistic relationship is identical to that ofUllr andUllin—often considered as variant names of a single god), and the fact that both are described as going on long journeys, though Lindow points out that Snorri is careful to keep them apart.[10] All theories regarding him must remain speculative, due to the limited accounts contained in the sources.
ScholarViktor Rydberg proposed that Freyja's husband Oðr is identical with the heroSvipdag from the eddic poems Grougaldr and Fjölsvinsmál. Jacob Grimm and others have long identified Menglad ("the neck-lace lover"), Svipdag's love interest in that poem, with Freyja the owner ofBrísingamen.[19]
ScholarHilda Ellis Davidson proposes that a cult of the Vanir may have influenced a cult of the Æsir in the waning days ofNorse paganism during theChristianization of Scandinavia, potentially resulting in the figure of Óðr in Norse mythology, which she refers to as a "strange double of Odin".[20]
ScholarRudolf Simek says that since Óðr appears in akenning employed by the 11th centuryskaldEinarr Skúlason (inSkáldskaparmál) and in thePoetic Edda poemsVöluspá andHyndluljóð, Óðr is not a late invention. Simek says that "the most obvious explanation is to identify Óðr with Odin," noting the similarity between their names (and agreeing with the Ullr/Ullin parallel), the long absences (comparing them to Odin's exile inGesta Danorum), and Óðr's marriage with Freyja.[21]
Simek adds that although these similarities exist, there are things that speak against it, such as that "Freyja's tears for Odin and her search are unmotivated," and that "the reference to Hnoss as their only child is surprising—why, for example, shouldBaldr not be mentioned?" Simek notes that these issues have resulted in sometimes very different explanations;Sophus Bugge andHjalmar Falk saw a reflection of the Greek godAdonis in Óðr,Rudolf Much saw a reflection in the godAttis, andLee Hollander theorizes a reflection of the folktale ofAmor and Psyche in Snorri'sProse Edda account of Óðr and Freyja.[21]
Simek concurs that, if the two gods were identical, Snorri would not have kept them so apart; yet that the names Odin and Óðr are so close that a lack of connection between the two gods isn't possible. Some scholars have examined the relationship between the two in an attempt to find "older" and "younger" layers in the figures of Óðr and Odin, but Simek says that this approach has yet to yield any results that are convincing due to the sparsity of sources that mention Óðr.[21]
ScholarStephan Grundy comments that while it is conceivable that Óðr may have been invented as a separate figure from Odin after Christianization, the notion is implausible because a separate, independent figure by the name of Wod survives in folklore involving theWild Hunt in areas as far south fromScandinavia asSwitzerland. Grundy notes that Óðr appears to date to at least before theViking Age. Grundy opines that "as pointed out byJan de Vries and others, there is little doubt" that Óðr and Odin were once the same figure. Grundy says thatÓðinn is an adjectival form ofÓðr, and thatÓðr may be the elder form of the two.[22]
Grundy theorizes that the goddessesFrigg andFreyja did not stem from a single goddess. If they did not, Grundy says, the question of explaining the relationship between Freyja and Óðr becomes central, which has been one of the strongest points made in favor of the descent of Frigg and Freyja from a common goddess. Grundy notes that it is rarely mentioned that theGermanic peoples sometimes practicedpolygamy, and cites chapter 18 ofTacitus' 1st century AD workGermania, where Tacitus records that whilemonogamy has very few exceptions in Germanic society, there are those who actively seek a polygamous marriage "for the sake of high birth." Grundy contrasts this with accounts ofpolygynous marriages among theMerovingians andCarolingians, points out that the onlyGermanic law-code that expressly forbids such relationships is that of theVisigoths, and notes that while polygynous marriages are rarely attested in Scandinavian sources,Harald I of Norway was married to seven wives simultaneously. Grundy concludes that, as "gods tend to reflect the social norms of their worshippers," it very possible that Odin/Óðr originally "could have rejoiced in Frigg and Freyja simultaneously". Grundy posits that, over time polygynous marriages dwindled during the Viking Age and into the Christianization of the North Germanic territories and, as a result, such a relationship was less easily reflected in the deities of the people.[23]