A large body ofWestern Chalukya literature in theKannada language was produced during the reign of theWestern Chalukya Empire (973–1200 CE) in what is nowsouthern India. This dynasty, which ruled most of thewestern Deccan in South India, is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty after its royal capital at Kalyani (nowBasavakalyan), and sometimes called the Later Chalukya dynasty for its theoretical relationship to the 6th-centuryChalukya dynasty ofBadami.^[1] For a brief period (1162–1183), theKalachuris of Kalyani, a dynasty of kings who had earlier migrated to theKarnataka region from central India and served asvassals for several generations, exploited the growing weakness of their overlords and annexed the Kalyani.^[2][3] Around 1183, the last Chalukya scion,Someshvara IV, overthrew the Kalachuris to regain control of the royal city. But his efforts were in vain, as other prominent Chalukya vassals in the Deccan, theHoysalas, theKakatiyas and theSeunas destroyed the remnants of the Chalukya power.^[4]

Kannada literature from this period is usually categorised into the linguistic phase called Old-Kannada. It constituted the bulk of the Chalukya court's textual production and pertained mostly to writings relating to the socio-religious development of theJain faith.^[5][6] The earliest well-known writers belonging to theShaiva faith are also from this period.^[7] Under the patronage of KalachuriKing Bijjala II, whose prime minister was the well-known Kannada poet andsocial reformerBasavanna, a native form of poetic literature calledVachana literature (lit "utterance", "saying" or "sentence") proliferated.^[8][9] The beginnings of theVachana poetic tradition in the Kannada-speaking region trace back to the early 11th century.^[10] Kannada literature written in thechampumetre, composed of prose and verse, was popularised by the Chalukyan court poets. However, with the advent of theVeerashaiva (lit, "brave devotees of the god Shiva") religious movement in the mid-12th century, poets favoured the nativetripadi (three-line verse composed of elevenganas or prosodic units),hadugabba (song-poem) andfree verse metres for their poems.^[11][12]

Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets, noblemen, royalty, ascetics and saints who wrote in themarga (mainstream) style,^[13] but also by commoners and artisans, including cobblers, weavers, cowherds and shepherds who wrote in thedesi (folk) style.^[14] TheseVachana poets (calledVachanakaras) revolutionised Kannada literature, rejecting traditional themes that eulogised kings and noblemen, and writing didactic poems that were closer to the spoken and sung form of the language. In addition to hundreds of male poets, over thirty female poets have been recorded, some of whom wrote along with their husbands.^[15][16]

Towards the end of the 10th century, a newKarnataka dynasty, called the Western Chalukyas, had come to power by overthrowing theRashtrakuta Empire ofManyakheta (modern Malkhed in theKalaburagi district, Karnataka). Their earliest inscription is dated toc. 957 and is ascribed to a subordinate ruler,Tailapa II of Tardavadi, later to become the founding king of the empire, in theBijapur district, Karnataka.^[23][24] An inscription from c. 967 suggests that an unsuccessful rebellion was staged by Chattideva, a local king belonging to the Chalukya family, with the help of the Kadamba chief from the temple townBanavasi.^[25] These events, however, paved the way for Tailapa II to launch a successful rebellion against the RashtrakutaKing Karka II with the help of the Kadamba chief ofHangal.^[26]

A century before these political developments, the age of great Sanskrit andPrakrit epics and classics had come to an end. This productive period had made available a vast corpus of literature that could be expressed in the local language of Kannada.^[27] Kannada, which had flourished both as a language of political discourse and literature in theRashtrakuta court, found enthusiastic support from the Chalukya kings. The influential Jains, who according to historianA.S. Altekar may have comprised 30 percent of the population, not only dominated the cultural landscape of 9th and 10th century Karnataka, but were also eager to encourage literature in the local language.^[28] According to Professor S.N. Sen, a research fellow at the Indian council of historical research, Kannada literature under the Chalukyas reached a "perfection of form".^[29][30] ScholarsSheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed that 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada, a virtual displacement of Sanskrit as the language of courtly discourse.^[31][32]

For a few centuries afterKavirajamarga ("Royal path for poets", c. 850), the earliest available Kannada literary work, Jain writings had adhered to Sanskritic models that had been recognised by the state as the path for future Kannada writers, while relegating native poetic forms (compositions such asChattana andBedande)^[33] to subordinate status.^[34] The stranglehold that the Sanskritic models had over Kannada literature is best exemplified by Ranna's lexiconRannakanda (990), where native day-to-day Kannada words had been translated into Sanskrit. This implied that the pure form of the local language was not viewed as equal to Sanskrit, from the cosmopolitan viewpoint.^[35] Kannada writings by Jain authors thus used impressive Sanskrit-derived verses interspersed with prose to extol the virtues of their patron kings, who were often compared to heroes from the Hindu epics. WhileAdikavi Pampa (Pampa Bharata, 941) compared his patron, the feudatoryChalukya King Arikesari, toPandava princeArjuna, inVikramarjuna Vijaya, his version of the Hindu epicMahabharata,Ranna (983) found it suitable to compare his patron,King Satyashraya, to Pandava princeBhima.^[36]

The mainstream literary style was to lose popularity during the mid-12th century Kalachuri rule, due to the rise of revolutionary notions about the social and cultural order. The Veerashaivas, acting in protest, used the pure form of Kannada language in their poems; moreover, they encouraged writers from lower castes to participate and eliminated themes that had been considered formal by the king and the monastery.^[37] Thus, written in native metres, in a language close to the spoken form of Kannada, theVachana poems gained mass appeal.^[38] A new religious faith was thereby propagated by the Veerashaivas whose ascendancy is called the "Veerashaiva movement" and their communicative genre, theVachana.^[39] While theVachana poetry is generally categorised as a part of the pan-IndianBhakti (devotional) literature, such generalisations tend to disguise the very esoteric and anti-bhakti positions taken by manyVachanakaras.^[40] The origin of the Veerashaiva ideology and the beginnings of their poetry is unclear. According to D.R. Nagaraj, a scholar on literary cultures in history, modern scholars tend to favour two broad views: integrationist and indigenist. The integrationists, such as L. Basavaraju, trace the source ofVachana poetic tradition to the SanskritUpanishad scriptures and theAgama doctrine, though this does not explain why the movement did not blossom earlier or in the neighbouringTelugu-speaking region where radical Shaiva sects were known to be active. The indigenists, such as Chidananda Murthy, M.M. Kalaburgi andG.S. Shivarudrappa, propose a native Karnataka origin of the poetry, though they are yet to fully explain its unique nature.^[40]

At about this time, adding to pressure from the popularity of theVachana canon in the northern Kannada-speaking region,^[41] the noted Hoysala kingVishnuvardhana (1108–1152) of the southern Kannada-speaking region converted from Jainism to the Hindu sect ofVaishnavism. The popularity ofRamanujacharya's philosophy had spread in the Hoysala lands andSrivaishnavism, a sub-sect of Vaishnavism, was in the ascendant.^[42] By the late 13th century, the Veerashaiva writers, who were by now writing allegorical inscriptions and biographies of famousVachanakaras of the 12th century, were in stiff competition with the Jains. The earliest attempts by the Jains to veer away from traditionalpuranic (philosophical) themes of renunciation are seen in the writings of Hoysala writers Nemichandra andAndayya.Lilavati Prabhandam, a novel written by Nemichandra (1170) on the topic of love, erotica, and of the victory ofKamadeva (god of love) over his arch-rival Shiva, is the first among such writings. It was followed byKabbigara Kava ("Poets defender", 1215–1237) by Andayya, also a work depicting a war between Kamadeva and the god Shiva.^[43] Despite these efforts, the Jain literary influence was to recede in the coming decades and centuries, being relegated mostly to the coastal Kannada-speaking region.^[44] Works of enduring quality were still produced by maverick authors such asRatnakaravarni (1557), though their numbers were fewer.^[45][46]

Contemporaneous to these developments,Nagavarma II wrote his Kannada grammarKarnataka bhashabhushana ("Ornament of Karnataka language", 1042 or 1145). A milestone in the history of Kannada literature, it helped consolidate the language as competitor to established languages such asSanskrit and Prakrit, bringing the local language within the realm of literary cosmopolitanism.^[47] Writing a Kannada grammar in Sanskrit language was essential to Nagavarma II, a subtle rebuttal to Sanskritic scholars of the day who may have considered Kannada a language of the common man and its grammar as underdeveloped.^[48] In addition to the Chalukya patronage, Kannada poets and writers of this period were popular in the courts of neighbouring kingdoms of the westernDeccan. The Hoysalas, the southern Kalachuris, the Seunas, theGangas and theSilharas are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature.^[49][50][51]

The late 10th century was a period of consolidation for the fledgling empire. Founding King Tailapa II and his successor, King Satyashraya, warred against their neighbours: the Shilharas of southKonkan, the Chaulukyas ofGujarat, theParamara of central India and theChola dynasty ofTanjore.^[24] Unaffected by these political developments, Kannada literature continued to flourish in the royal court. The foremost writer of this period was Ranna, who was born to a family of bangle sellers in the town ofMudhol. Ranna is considered by historians K.A. Nilakanta Sastri and Sailendra Nath Sen as one of the "three gems of Kannada literature" along with his seniors, Adikavi Pampa andSri Ponna. Ranna became the court poet of King Tailapa II and King Satyashraya. In his early days, he was also patronised by the well-known Ganga ministerChavundaraya.^{[29][52][53][54]} Ranna is famous for writingAjitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jaintirthankar Ajitanatha. However, it is in hismagnum opus, the workSahasa Bhima Vijaya ("Victory of bold Bhima", also calledGada Yudda or "Conflict of Clubs'", 982) that he reaches his zenith of poetic grace while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and Kaurava princeDuryodhana in his Jain version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.^[55][56]

Unlike Pampa who glorifies Arjuna andKarna in his writing, Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyashraya and favourably compares him to Bhima, whom he crowns at the end of the Mahabharata war. He calls Bhima's adversary Duryodhanamahanubhava ("a great person"). The work contains some of the earliest examples ofelegiac verses (calledshoka gita orcharama gita) in the Kannada language, noted among which is one piece that describes the heart-rending lamentation (calledkaruna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") of Duryodhana on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana, his inseparable friend in joy and sorrow, Karna, and Arjuna's valorous sonAbhimanyu.^[57] The effect given to the writing, the language, the diction and the style maintained throughout the narration has earned Ranna a place among the most notable authors of Kannada literature.^[56] Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest available dictionary in Kannada language called theRannakanda (990), of which only eleven verses still exist.^[58] His other notable writings were theChakeresvaracharita and theParashuramacharitha. According to historian Suryanath Kamath, the latter work, which is now lost, may have been a eulogy of Chavundaraya, whom the poet admired.^[59] For his literary contributions, the titleKavi Chakravathi ("Emperor among poets") was bestowed upon Ranna by his patron king.^[60]

Another notable writer from the close of the 10th century, Nemichandra, wrote theKaviraja kunjara andLilavati (c. 990) with Prince Kavdarpa Deva of Jayantipura (modern Banavasi, Karnataka) and Princess Lilavati as the protagonists of the latter poem.^[61] Other writers from the close of the 10th century whose works are now lost but have been praised by the Chalukya minister Durgasimha (1031) are Kavitavilasa (patronised by King Jayasimha II), Madiraja, Chadrabhatta, Kannamayya and Manasija.^[62][63][64] Inscriptions such as the Kuppatur and Haveri records eulogize popular writers such as Harivarma (1070) and Narayana Deva respectively.^[65]

According to Kannada scholar R. Narasimhacharya, despite the production of some important secular writings, repeatedChola invasions into Kannada lands in the 11th century may have adversely affected literary production.^[62] This situation was brought about by intense competition between the Western Chalukyas and their arch-rivals, theCholas of Tanjore.^[66] Among notable writings, Chandraraja'sMadanatilaka ("Forehead ornament of passion", 1025), written in thechampu metre, is the earliest available work on erotica in the Kannada language and an adaptation of the SanskritKamasutra byVatsyayana. The narration is a dialogue between the patron and his wife inposakannada, the most modern Kannada in usage at the time.^[67][68] He was under the patronage of Machiraja, feudatory of King Jayasimha II (also called Jagadekamalla I).^[69] Shridharacharya, a JainBrahmin patronised by KingSomeshvara I (also called Ahvamalla or Trailokyamalla) showed his ability to write on scientific subjects inJatakatilaka (1049), the earliest available writing onastrology in Kannada, citing the SanskritastronomerAryabhata. His other work is the lostChandraprabha Charite, onbelles-lettres.^[68][69]

Chavundaraya II, aShaiva Brahmin (Brahmin devotee of the god Shiva) by faith and a protege of King Jayasimha II, wroteLokopakara (c. 1025) in thechampu metre. It is the earliest availableencyclopaedia in the Kannada language, written at times with a poetic touch. It comprises twelve chapters and has found popularity in later references as well. The work is on various topics such as daily life, astronomy, astrology and forecasting of events based on the Indian calendar (panchanga phala), sculpture, construction of buildings (vastu vichara) and reservoirs (udakargala), omens, divination of water, preparation of medicine from herbs and plants (vrikshayurveda), general medicine (vaidya), perfumery, cookery and toxicology (vishavaidya).^[64][68] Mentioned in this book is the popular South Indian dishIdli and its preparation by soakingUrad dal (black gram) in butter milk, grinding it to a fine paste, and mixing with spices and the clear water ofcurd.^[70]

Durgasimha, theSandhi Vigrahi (minister of war and peace) of King Jayasimha II wrote the well-knownPanchatantra ("The five stratagems", 1031) inchampu style, basing it on Gunadhya's Paishachi language originalBrihatkatha. Thisfable is the first adaptation of the original into a vernacular language of India. Containing sixty fables in all, thirteen of which are original, each is summarised by an ethical moral based on a Jain tenet.^[71] Durgasimha also authored theKarnataka Banachatantra, the earliest available commentary in the Kannada language, giving a brief commentary on all the Sanskrit verses he quoted in thePanchatantra.^[71] Around this time, Jayakirti (c. 1000–1050), a Kannada language theorist, who considered the rules ofprosody to be the same for Sanskrit and Kannada, wrote theChandonusasana^[72][73]

There were other notable writers from the latter part of the 11th century. Shantinatha, patronised by King Someshvara II, wrote the poemSukumaracharita in c. 1068.^[62] Nagavarmacharya, a BrahminAdvaita saint ofBalligavi, who was patronised by King Udayatidya, a vassal of Chalukya King Someshvara II, wroteChandrachudamani sataka (c. 1070) in thesataka (hundred-line verse) metre. In this centum of verses, where each ends with the term "Chandrachudamani" as another name of the god Shiva, the author treats onviragya (ethics of renunciation).^[68][74][75] Other writers whose works are considered lost but have been referenced in contemporary writings are Gunachandra and Gunavarma. Gunachandra, who was admired by King Someshvara II (also called Bhuvanaika Malla), wroteParsvabhyudaya andMaghanadisvara.^[76] Gunavarma, who earned the honorificBhuvanaika Vira, a title befitting a warrior rather than a poet, is mentioned by grammarianKeshiraja (c. 1260) as the author ofHarivamsa. His title identifies him with a Ganga prince called Udayaditya who was a minister and general under Chalukya King Someshvara II. Other writings ascribed to the author arePushpadanta Purana andDevachandra Prabha Stotra.^[76]

The 12th century heralded an age of peace and prosperity. Cultural and literary developments received impetus during the rule ofKing Vikramaditya VI, a patron of the fine arts. The king, who ascended the throne in 1076 and ruled for fifty years occupies a pride of place in thehistory of Karnataka. His reign marks the end of the use ofSaka Varsha (Indian calendar, the "Saka era") in Chalukya inscriptions and the start ofVikrama Varsha ("Vikrama era").^[77] His court was adorned with some of the most well-known writers of Kannada and Sanskrit literature.^[78] Nayasena, whose writings are dated by the scholars D.R. Nagaraj and Sheldon Pollock to the 10th century, and by E.P. Rice and R. Narasimhacharya to c. 1112,^[79][80] wrote theDharmamritha, a book containing fifteen stories that belong to the genre of fable andparable. Well known among these stories teaching about Jain tenets are "Yajnadatta and the mongoose", "Kapalika and the young elephant" and "Serpent, tiger, monkey and the goldsmith who had fallen in the old well".^[81] The writing is one of intense self-interrogation where the author criticises the beliefs of all contemporaneous religions while decrying the contamination in the original Jain beliefs due to external cultural influences, such as the practice of violent and bloody rituals and the caste system.^[80]

Brahmashiva, the court poet of King Vikramaditya VI, earned the titleKavichakravarti ("Emperor among poets") from his patron for his writingSamayaparikshe ("Analysis of the doctrine", c. 1125). In this philosophical writing, containing touches of propagandist satire and humor, the author seeks to prove the virtues of Jainism superior to all other contemporary religions.^[82][83] Brahmashiva portrays contemporary life and beliefs of the people of the Kannada-speaking region. He criticisesHinduism and the conversion of a Jain temple originally dedicated to the Tirthankar Chandrapraba inKholapur into a Hindu temple deifying the goddessMahalakshmi. He expresses reservation regarding the existence of religious cosmopolitanism within a household where family members followed multiple faiths. The author is concerned about the eroding popularity of Jainism in southern India due to the rising popularity of the Veerashaiva movement.^[84] Prince Kirtivarma, a younger brother of King Vikramaditya VI, wroteGovaidya ("Cattle Medicine"), the earliest available writing in Kannada onveterinary science, which mixes medicine and magic.^[82]

After the death of Vikramaditya VI, his successors, Someshvara III and Jagadhekamalla II continued to support poets and writers.^[85] Karnaparya's account of the life of the 22nd tirthankarNeminatha, theNeminathapurana (c. 1145) inchampu metre, includes details of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and of the god Krishna from a Jain outlook.^[86] Jagaddala Somanatha'sKarnataka Kalyanakaraka (1150), a translation of the Sanskrit writingKalyanakaraka by Pujyapada, is the earliest writing on medicine in Kannada. It prescribes an entirely vegetarian and non-alcoholic diet.^[86][87]

Among available works on Kannada grammar, a part ofKavirajamarga (850) forms the earliest framework.^[88] The occurrence of the termpurvacharyar in some contexts of the writing may be a reference to previous grammarians or rhetoricians.^[48] Though Nagavarma II is credited to be the author of the earliest exhaustive Kannada grammar, the author mentions his predecessors, Sankavarma andNagavarma-I (the extantChhandombudhi, "Ocean of Prosody", c. 984^[89]) as path-makers of Kannada grammar.^[48] The exact time when grammarian Nagavarma-II lived is debated by historians. Until the discovery ofVardhamana Puranam ("Life of Varadhama", c. 1042) written in Kannada by an author who goes by the same name, it was broadly accepted by scholars including E.P. Rice, R. Narasimhacharya and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri that Nagavarma II lived in the mid-12th century (1145) and was also theKatakacharya ("poet laureate") of Chalukya KingJagadhekamalla II.^[90][91][92] However, of late, the Encyclopaedia of Indian literature, published by theSahitya Akademi (1988), and scholars D.R. Nagaraj and Sheldon Pollock concur that Nagavarma II lived in the mid-11th century and was the poet laureate of Chalukya King Jayasimha II, who had the epithetJagadekamalla ("Lord of the world").^[48][93]

Irrespective of when Nagavarma II lived, it is accepted that few scholars in the history of Kannada literature made important contributions in as many subjects as he did.^[90][92] His writings on grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of the Kannada language is well-acknowledged. Among his available writings, the historically importantKavyavalokana ("Treatise on the art of poetry") on grammar, poetics and rhetoric is considered path-breaking and contains all the essentials of Kannada grammar. The first section of the book is calledSabdasmriti and contains five chapters dealing with euphonic combinations, nouns, compounds, nominal derivatives and verbs respectively. It is based on earlier works by the Sanskrit grammarians Dandin and Bhamaha. TheKarnataka Bhashabhushana, a consolidated and exhaustive Kannada grammar written by Nagavarma II in the Sanskrit language, follows the fundamental framework of the Katantra school of Sanskrit grammar.^[48] For his contribution to Kannada grammar, Nagavarma II earned the honorificSarvavarma – the name of the noted Sanskrit grammarian of theSatavahana era.^[47] HisAbhidana Vastukosa ("Treasury of significations"), a lexicon, gives Kannada equivalents of nearly eight thousand Sanskrit words and is considered an achievement which gave Kannada language considerable footing in the world of Sanskrit literary dominance.^[94][95] Modern Kannada poetGovinda Pai proposed that the author ofKarnataka Bhashabhushana was a different Nagavarma who belonged to the mid-12th century.^[48]

The meteoric rise ofVeerashaivism (a religious sect which preaches devotion to the god Shiva, also called "Lingayatism") in caste-ridden 12th-century Karnataka has historic significance because it embraced commoners from the lower strata of society, people who had hitherto been denied access to even basic education.^[96] The essence of the movement, also seen in the resultingVachana poems, was the rejection of temple-based ritual worship and the hegemony of mainstream Sanskritic texts and scriptures. The movement encouraged a monotheistic belief in the Hindu deity Shiva which, according to Kannada scholarH.S. Shiva Prakash, is a possible influence of the 63Nayanmars (poets devoted to the god Shiva, 5th–10th century) of the Tamil-speaking region. The followers of the faith prayed not to a conventional image of a God but rather wore alinga (symbol of the god Shiva) on their body.^[18][97] The beginnings of theVachana poetry (calledVachana Sahitya – "Vachana literature", orAnubhava Sahitya – "mystic literature" and sometimesSharana Sahitya – "literature of the devotees"), a unique form of expression in the Kannada language, can however be traced back to the 11th century.^[18][98]

Names of three poets from the 11th century and some of their poems are available. Madara Chennaiah, a cobbler turned saint, is considered by H.S. Shiva Prakash as the firstVachana poet, and was held in high esteem by latter day poets of the 12th century, including Basavanna. Only ten of Chennaiah's poems, expressing his resentment of thecaste system in metaphors taken from the cobblers' trade, areextant today.^[99] Dohara Kakkaiah is the second poet. Adalit by birth, his six available poems are confessional in nature, a theme seen in the later poems of Basavanna.^[100] Devara Dasimaiah (or Jedara Dasimaiah, 1040) is better known because a hundred and fifty of his poems are available. Written in a deft and concise language of proverbs and metaphors, his poems encourage monotheistic belief in the god Shiva. Dasimaiah's wife Duggale qualifies as Kannada's first women poet, though only a few of her poems are available.^[100]

In the mid-12th century, theKalachuris successfully warred against their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexed their capitalKalyani.^[101] During this turbulent period lasting three decades (1153–1183), Veerashaivism gained popularity.^[102][103] According to H.S. Shiva Prakash, the Kalachuri period is one of the high points of medieval Kannada literature.^[104] Basavanna (or Basava), a social reformer and the prime minister of Kalachuri KingBijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration behind this movement.^[105]Allama Prabhu,Chennabasava, Siddharama,Akka Mahadevi, and Kondugoli Keshiraja are other well-known poets among several hundred in this cadre.^[15][16]

A centre of religious discussions calledAnubhava Mantapa ("Hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences.^[106] Here, they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems calledVachanas. These were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical andsatirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning.^[20][21] Many of these poems are anonymous, but the authors are identifiable by the unique divine name of the god Shiva that is invoked in the poem.^[107]

Basavanna

Born to Brahmin parents in the town ofBasavana Bagewadi, Basavanna (1106–1167) rejected theupanayanam ("ritual thread ceremony") and left home forKudalasangama, a holy place at the confluence of theKrishna andGhataprabha rivers in Bagalkot district, Karnataka. According to historian P.B. Desai, it was here, during his tutelage under the saint Ishanyaguru, that Basavanna had visions of his life's purpose.^[108] The life of Basavanna marks a milestone in the history of Karnataka state, India. A towering personality, his zeal and socio-cultural achievements in the realm of peace and equality of mankind have brought about enduring changes in society.^[109]

Information about his life and achievements come from the many Kannada writings, the earliest of which were written just after his death. Hoysala poetHarihara'sBasavarajadevara ragale is the first known biography on Basavanna. Vijayanagara poet-writer Bhima Kavi'sBasavapurana (1369), Singiraja'sAmala Basavacharite (1500), Vijayanagara minister Lakkanna Dandesa'sShiva Tatwachintamani (1425–1450) are some of the important sources.^[109] The cornerstone of Basavanna's philosophy was "work-worship is heaven" or "kaayakave kailasa", the rejection of mere worship of God and the acceptance of one's own body as a temple of God. Basavanna strongly advocated a life of complete commitment to work.^[110][111] As a poet, he finds a place of pride in Kannada literature. His deftly written poems end with the word "Kudalasangama" which literally means "God of the confluence of two rivers", the poet's version of the god Shiva. About 1,300 such poems have survived,^[112] and have been described by H.S. Shiva Prakash as lyrical, satirical, deeply contemplative and self-critical.

In one satirical poem, Basavanna decries the hypocrisy of a snake charmer and his wife, who on their way to find a bride for their son cancel the journey when they come across a bad omen – another snake charmer and his wife.^[113] Though Basavanna himself was a minister under the patronage of the king, some of his poems betray his contempt towards kingship and deep devotion to the god Shiva.^[114][115]A poem by Basavanna:^[113]

I am one. Five are burning me.
Unbearable, the fire above
I cannot stand. When
A tiger is dragging a wild bull away
Can you not rescue, Kudalasangamadeva.

Allama Prabhu

Allama, also known as Allama Prabhu (lit, "Allama the master") was a mendicant saint-poet who took to the path of asceticism after the untimely death of his wife Kamalate. He was born into a family of hereditary temple performers and was himself an expert on the drum (calledmaddale) in Balligavi, a town of great antiquity in theShivamogga district, Karnataka.^[116][117] Wandering around grief-stricken by his wife's death, he came across a saint called Animisayya who initiated him into asceticism.

Ascribed to Allama are 1,321 extant poems, each of which end with the word "Guhesvara" (lit, "Lord of the Cave", a form of the god Shiva), for it is said Allama found enlightenment in a cave.^[116] Allama's cryptic poems, though full of kindness, are known for their satire, mockery, invective and rejection ofsiddhis (occult powers). H.S. Shiva Prakash compares Allama's poems to theKoans in Japanese Zen poetry.^[118] According to D.R. Nagaraj, Allama's mystic poems are in a category all of their own and do not qualify asbhakti poems, which are typically characterised by transparent devotion.^[119]

While Basavanna's zeal and influence led to the formation and popularity of the Veerashaiva movement in Kalyani, it was Allama who was the undisputed spiritual authority presiding over the gatherings of the devotees.^[120][121] Chamarasa, a well-known 15th-century Kannada writer in the court ofVijayanagaraKing Deva Raya II wrotePrabhulinga Lile (1430), an account of the preachings and achievements of Allama; it was translated into the Telugu andTamil languages at the behest of his patron king, and later into the Sanskrit andMarathi languages. In the story, Allama is considered an incarnation of the Hindu godGanapathi while Ganapathi's mother,Parvati (Shiva's consort), takes the form of a princess of Banavasi.^[122][123] A notable anthology called theSunyasampadane ("The achievement of nothingness", 1400) was compiled on the life of Allama and gives details about his interaction with contemporary saints.^[124] A poem by Allama Prabhu:^[125]

I saw
The fragrance fleeing
When the bee came,
What a wonder!
I saw
Intellect fleeing
When the heart came.
I saw
The temple fleeing
When God came.

Akka Mahadevi

Prominent among the more than thirty women poets was Akka Mahadevi. Born to a merchant family in the town Udatadi (or Udugani) in the Shivamogga district, and possibly married against her wishes to a feudal chief called Kausika, she renounced worldly pleasures, opting for a life of devotion and asceticism.^[113] She is often compared to other such notable female saint-poets of Hinduism asAndal,Lalleswari andMeera Bai, and is considered one of the prominent female poets of the Kannada language.^[126][127]

The 430 short poems written by her, in a language that depicts her love for her divine lover "Channa Mallikarjuna" (lit, "Beautiful Mallikarjuna", a name for the god Shiva), and the 15th-century anthology, theSunyasampadane, are the main sources of information about her life.^[128] Her poetry is characterised by scorn for physical possessions and detachment from worldly affairs. A popular poem written by her describes the life of a silk worm which spins a cocoon, becomes entangled in the threads, and eventually dies because it cannot extricate itself – the silk worm is compared to a person and the silk threads, to worldly desires. In a poem of puns, the poet prays that her god, whom she describes as the "Lord of fragrant Jasmines", may cut through the cocoon of desires so she may become free like a butterfly.^[129]

In addition to poetry, she is credited with two short writings,Mantrogopya andYogangatrividhi, the latter written in the nativetripadi metre, describing the various stages of spiritual enlightenment.^[130] Tradition has it that Akka Mahadevi preferred to wear no clothes, a form of renunciation which in her own words was the "most exalted spiritual state".^[131] She died while still in her twenties in a plantain grove in the holy city ofSrisailam.^[132] A poem by Akka Mahadevi:^[127]

You are the whole forest
And all the birds and beasts in the forest.
O Channamallikarjuna,
You inform all things
But why don't you show your face to me?

Other poets

Basavanna's nephew, Chennabasava, is more popular as a strategist and a theologian. Apart from authoring some notable and lengthyVachana poems, he wrote onyogic experiences in a book calledMantragopya. He is known to have been the manager of the gatherings and theMahamane ("great house") of Basavanna.^[133] Credited to Siddharama, another influential devotee and a native of Sonnalige (modernSholapur, Maharashtra), are writings intripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems). His poems were influenced by Basavanna's ideology and convey rejection of blind beliefs, the caste system, and sexual discrimination.^[134]

Artisan poets included Molige Maraiah, a wood cutter; Madivala Machayya, a washerman; Ambigere Chowdiah, a ferryman; Madara Dhooliah, a cobbler; Hendada Mariah, a toddy tapper; Turugahi Ramanna, a cowherd; Kannadi Remmitande, a mirror maker; and Revanna Siddha, a shepherd, as but a few in a long list of poets.^[135] Poets Dakkeya Bommaiah, Bahuroopi Chowdaiah, Kalaketaiah and Nageya Maritande were ritual street performers and their poems reflect images from their trade.^[136]

Several women poets made important contributions including: Basavanna's sister Nagalambike and his two wives, Gangambike and Neelambike, though Neelambike seems to have been the more prolific. Some female poets were wives of male poets in the Veerashaiva congregation. Notable among them are Satyakka, whose poems compare in quality to those of Akka Mahadevi,^[137] Kelavve (a dalit poet), whose poems scorn at the upper caste people, Mahadevi and Lingamma, who wrote poems in a mystic language, Amuge Rayamma and Akkamma, who penned poems on the hypocrisy of religious pretences, Kadire Remavva (a spinner), who employed a cryptic language calledbedagu in her poems, and Muktayakka, who is known for her debates with the patron saint Allama himself.^[137] Other names worthy of mention are Lakkamma, Ketaladevi, Guddavve and a princess called Bontadevi.^[137]

Challenging the very core of the caste-based society, the Veerashaivas conducted a marriage between an upper caste Brahmin bride and a lower caste Shudra groom. The resulting confrontation between rebellious Veerashaivas and the conservative upper classes lead to the assassination of King Bijjala II and the eviction of most devotees, including Basavanna, from Kalyani.^[138] The successors of King Bijjala II were weak, prompting Chalukya Someshvara IV, ruling from Annigeri, to attempt rebuilding his empire by invading Kalyani in 1183. Though his invasion was successful, his overall efforts failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi in 1189.^[4][139] Though these turbulent events caused a setback to the Veerashaiva gatherings and creation of poems, the movement had set roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of theVijayanagara Empire.^[106][138]

The post-Chalukya period is characterised by the popularity of Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional writings, though secular and courtly topics written in native metres continued to flourish. Native metres in vogue were theshatpadi (six-line verse), thetripadi, theragle (rhymed couplets) and thesangatya (compositions meant to be sung to the accompaniment a musical instrument).^[140] Overall, Kannada writings began to change frommarga ("formal", due to Sanskritic influence) todesi ("vernacular") and become more accessible to the common man.^[12]

This change is apparent in the writings of the Hoysala court poets, some of whom are noted for pioneering works in native metres.^[141] The Veerashiava poetHarihara, one of the most prominent poets of the medieval era, established theragale tradition with his biography of Basavanna (Basavaraja Devara ragale, 1160), the earliest available biography of the social reformer and of the Kannada language as well.^[142] His nephewRaghavanka established theshatpadi metre in his unique and original narration of the story ofKing Harishchandra calledHarishchandra Kavya (1200).^[143] Sisumayana is credited with introducing a new composition calledsangatya (1232) in his allegorical poemsTripuradahana ("Burning of the triple fortress") andAnjanacharita.^[144] Some Jain authors continued thechampu tradition, such asJanna, immortalised by his writingYashodhara Charite (1207), a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing withsadomasochism andtransmigration of the soul.^[145] The earliest well-known Brahmin writers also emerged during the late 12th century and wrote on themes ranging from Vaishnava faith (Rudrabhatta'sJagannatha Vijaya, 1185) to secular treatises on poetics (Kavi Kama'sSringara Ratnakara, on poetic sentiment and flavor).^[146]

After the fall of the Kalachuri empire, theVachana poetic tradition halted temporarily. However, by the 14th century, the Veerashaivas who held influential positions in the Vijayanagara Empire were exerting their influence, especially during the reign of King Deva Raya II (or Prouda Deva Raya).^[147] Although this period is not as famous for the proliferation of theVachana poems as the 12th century was, contemporary writers adopted the preachings of the saints and devotees of the bygone era and made them the protagonists of their writings. Having found a rallying point to spread their faith, they began an era of commentaries, anthologies and biographies.^[147][148] Famous among biographies were Bhimakavi'sBasavapurana (1369), Singiraja'sMala-Basavapurana (orSingirajapurana, 1500) on the life of Basavanna,Chamarasa'sPrabhulingalile (1425) on the life of Allama Prabhu and Virupaksha Pandita'sChenna Basavapurana (1584), an account of Chennabasava.^[149] Among a long list of anthologies, four versions of theShunyasampadane are the most well-known. The first version, completed in 1400 by Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah, was written in the form of a dialogue between the protagonist, saint Allama Prabhu, and other well-known Veerashaiva devotees. Later versions were compiled by Halage Arya (1500), Gummalapura Siddhalingayati (1560) and Gulur Siddhaveeranodaya (1570).^[150] WritingVachana poems was popularised again from the mid-16th century, though Kannada language had to wait till the 17th century to discover its greatest modern poet in this genre.Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing", 16th or 17th century), amendicant poet-moralist and social reformer, left an indelible imprint on Kannada literature with his didactic poems, numbering about 2,100 in all. Written using the simple nativetripadi metre to instruct the country folk, these poems cover a vast range of topics, from caste and religion to economics and administration, from arts and crafts to family life and health. Sarvajna's poems constitute some of Kannada's most popular works.^{[151][152][153]}

Four noted Brahmin writers of the Vijayanagara empire,Kumara Vyasa, Timmanna Kavi, Kumara Valmiki and Chatu Vitthalanata proliferated theshatpadi metre in their versions of the Hindu epics.^[154] Inspired by theVachana writers who used the song-prose medium to write their poems, theHaridasa poets used genres such as thekirthane (musical compositions with two refrains – composition based onraga, or tune andtala, or rhythm), theSuladi (rhythm-based) and theUgabhoga (melody-based) to convey their devotion to God.^[155] Their contributions to the south Indian classical music (Carnatic music) is well acclaimed,Purandaradasa andKanakadasa being the most popular poets of this cadre. Purandaradasa was the most prolific Haridasa poet who wrote in theragale metre and also earned the honorificKarnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ("Father of Carnatic music").^[156] Kanakadasa was versatile in many native metres. HisMohana tarangini is in thesangatya metre,Nalacharita and a book of morals for children calledHaribhakti-sara are in theshatpadi metre.^[157]

• "History of Kannada Literature – I". Retrieved8 March 2008.
• Rice E.P. (1982).History of Kannada Literature. Asian Educational Services.ISBN 978-81-206-0063-8. Retrieved8 March 2008.

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