 | |
| Geographical range | North-west Balkans, Pannonian Plain |
|---|---|
| Period | Chalcolithic,Bronze Age |
| Dates | c. 3000 BCE – 2200 BCE |
| Major sites | Vučedol, nearVukovar,Croatia |
| Preceded by | Baden culture,Hvar culture,Coțofeni culture,Yamnaya culture |
| Followed by | Bell Beaker culture,Nagyrév culture,Cetina culture,Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture,Vatin culture |
TheVučedol culture (Croatian:Vučedolska kultura) flourished between 3000 and 2200 BC[1] (theChalcolithic period of earliest copper-smithing andarsenical bronze-smithing), centered inSyrmia and easternSlavonia on the right bank of theDanube river, but possibly spreading throughout thePannonian plain and westernBalkans and southward. It was thus contemporary with theSumer period inMesopotamia, theEarly Dynastic period inEgypt and the earliest settlements ofTroy (Troy I and II). Archaeogenetics link the culture fromYamnaya migrations directly from the steppes that mixed with Neolithic people.[2] The need for copper resulted in the expansion of the Vučedol Culture from its homeland of Slavonia into the broader region of central and southeastern Europe.[3] The Vučedol culture is also known as the 'Zok culture' in Hungary, with regional variants including the 'Mako culture' and 'Nyirseg culture', and as the 'Laibach-Ljubljana culture' In the eastern Alpine area.[4]
Following theBaden culture, another wave of possibleIndo-European speakers came to the banks of theDanube. One of the major places they occupied is present-dayVučedol, located six kilometers downstream from the town ofVukovar,Croatia. It is estimated that the site had once been home to about 3,000 inhabitants, making it one of the largest and most important European centers of its time. According to Bogdan Brukner, proto-Illyrians descended from this wave of Indo-European settlers.[5]
The early stages of theculture occupied locations not far from mountain ranges, where copper deposits were located, because of their main invention: making tools fromarsenical copper in series reusing double, two-part moulds.
The Vučedol culture at its peak completely or partially covered 14 of today's European countries – the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia, Italy, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Albania and one settlement has even been registered in Eastern Greece.
The Vučedol culture developed from two older eneolithic cultures: theBaden culture, mainly in thePannonian plain, and theKostolac culture in northernSerbia and westernRomania, so the primary region of Vučedol development is eastern Croatia and the Syrmia region.
The archaeological stratigraphy of the Vučedol culture can be divided into four phases:
The Vučedol culture is the final eneolithic culture of the region, displaying characteristically common use of thewar axe in its "Banniabik" form. Cult objects suggest the practice of new cults very different from the Neolithic Magna Mater conception: cult of the Deer,[7] womb-shaped solar motives, figures of women in clothes without sexual or fertility decoration, symbols of double axe. In pottery, new forms and a new rich decoration, are characterized by the spectacular find, the Vučedol dove. The Vučedol culture exploited native copper ores on a massive scale. The settlement sites destroyed earlier eneolithic settlements, and new Vučedol settlements also developed in regions where none previously existed.
The rise of a dominant hunter-warrior class is a preview of the changes that will be characteristic for the east and middle European early Bronze Age.
Compared to earlier and contemporary cultures the Vučedol culture exploited a diversity in food sources: the Vučedol people were hunters, fishermen and agrarians, with some strong indications that they cultivated certain domesticated animals. Thus the culture was more resilient to times of want.
The community chief was theshaman-smith, possessing the arcane knowledge of avoiding poisonous arsenic gas which is connected to the technology of coppersmithing as well as understanding the year cycle. Still, the whole life of shaman-smith could not pass without biological consequences of chronic arsenic exposure: slow loss of body movement coordination, and at the same time, stronger sexual potency. "That is why", according to Aleksandar Durman, "all eneolithic, or later gods of metallurgy are identified with fertility, and also why all gods in almost all early cultures – limp".[9]
It was a society of deep social changes and stratification that led to the birth of tribal and military aristocracy. Also, Vučedol people had enough time to express their spiritual view of the world.
In modern times, Vučedol ceramics have become famous worldwide. A very characteristic bi-conical shape and typical ornaments evolved, in many cases with typical "handles" which were almost non-functional, but were key to understanding ornaments that had symbolic meanings, representing ideas such as "horizon", "mountains", "sky", "underworld", "sun", "constellation ofOrion", "Venus", et cetera.[10]
One of the most famous pieces of Vučedol is the ritual vessel made between 2800 and 2500 BCE, called by the speculative attribution of M. Seper, who found it in 1938, the "Vučedol Dove" (vučedolska golubica). The latest interpretation, however, is that the vessel is in the shape of the malepartridge, a symbol of fertility, whose limping defensive behavior against attack by predators on a partridge nest on the ground linked it to the limping shaman-smith, according to the recent interpretation byAleksandar Durman ofZagreb.[9] The figure is a remarkable example of artistic creation and religious symbolism associated with a cult of theGreat Mother.[11]The "Vučedol Dove" is a 19,5 cm high ritual vessel made from baked clay. Three symbols ofdouble axes and a necklace were incised on its neck with lines covering its wings and chest, and an unusual crest on the back of the head. If the shape of the crest and carefully delineated wings and chest, prove the figure to be thedomesticated dove, then it was being raised in Europe 4,500 years ago, much earlier than we commonly think. The "Vučedol Dove" is the oldest dove figure found in Europe so far.[12]
The ritual vessel was depicted on thereverse of the Croatian 20kuna banknote, issued in 1993 and 2001.[13]
Among the most famous pieces is a piece of ceramics dated to 2600 BC with an astral calendar, the first one found in Europe that shows the year starting at the dusk of the first day of spring.[16]
It is based on an Orion cycle, shown by precise sequence of constellations on a vessel found in an Eneolithic mound in the very center of the modern town ofVinkovci. The climatic conditions in that latitude bring about four yearly seasons.[Note 1] The simple explanation of the Vučedol Calendar is that each of the four lateral bands on the vessel represent the four seasons, starting with spring on the top. Each band is divided into twelve boxes, making up 12 "weeks" for each season. Each of the little boxes contains an ideogram of celestial objects that lie at a certain point on the horizon right after twilight. The place of reference on the horizon is the point at which (in those days) theOrion's Belt disappeared from view at the end of winter, which meant the beginning of a new year. The pictographs in the boxes represent:Orion, the Sun,Cassiopeia,Cygnus,Gemini,Pegasus, and thePleiades. If the box is empty, it means there was nothing visible at the reference point during the corresponding time.[Note 2][citation needed]
People of the Vučedol culture lived in thatched wattle-and-daub houses.[18][19][20][21] Vučedol people lived on hilltop sites surrounded with palisades. Houses were half buried, mostly square or circular in plan with floors of burned clay; the shapes were also combined in mushroom shapes; there were circular fireplaces.
The houses at the Vučedol site were also places of birth and burial. A number ofhuman skeletons were found in the pits that once served as foodstorage pits. Their bodies were placed in a ritual way, with some possible indications ofhuman sacrifice.[22] Also, marks on the foreheads ofskulls were found that could be attributed to some kind of initiation in early childhood by a drop of moltencopper.[23]
Some researchers of the Vučedol culture[who?] have claimed that there was regular trade between the territory of the Vučedol culture and the Helladic culture to the south.
Cultural elements found of the B2 phase of the Vučedol culture appear to have originated in the first phase of the middle Bronze Age of theHelladic culture of mainland Greece.[citation needed]
The excavated settlement ofVučedol provides a base for the stratigraphic structure of the whole culture.
No final conclusions about the linguistic character of Vučedol can be made, such as the inference that its people were linguistically Indo-European, or to what extent they mixed with native European populations, in regions of the easternAdriatic coast, Dalmatia and Herzegovina with some parts of Bosnia as well.
A February 2018 study published inNature included an analysis of three individuals ascribed to the Vučedol culture. One male carriedhaplogroup R1b-z2103 andT2e, while the other carriedG2a2a1a2a andT2c2. The female carriedU4a.[24] In a three-way admixture model, first male approximately had 58%Early European Farmers, 42%Western Steppe Herders and 0%Western Hunter-Gatherer-related ancestry, second male 93% EEF, 4% WSH and 3% WHG while female 37% EEF, 54% WSH and 10% WHG.[25] According to Lazaridis, R1b-Z2103 is linked to the Yamnaya migration from the steppes.[2]
![Green stone axe with gold decoration, Boljevića Gruda tumulus, Montenegro.[26][27][28]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.m.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEt%25C3%25A0_del_bronzo_media%2c_accetta%2c_da_neskova_gruda%2c_1600-1300_ac_ca.JPG)
In the early 3rd millennium B.C., the Vucedol culture followed the Baden in the northwestern Balkans and the east Alpine area. This culture is named after the Vucedol hill fort at Vukovar on the Danube, northwestern Yugoslavia, excavated by R. R. Schmidt. In Hungary it is called the "Zok culture" with several subgroups: "Zok" proper in southwestern Hungary, "Mako" in the Koros and Maros basins of southeastern Hungary, and "Nyirseg" in northeastern Hungary. In the eastern Alpine area, it is better known as "Laibach-Ljubljana culture
In the early 3rd millennium B.C., the Vucedol culture followed the Baden in the northwestern Balkans and the east Alpine area. This culture is named after the Vucedol hill fort at Vukovar on the Danube, northwestern Yugoslavia, excavated by R. R. Schmidt. In Hungary it is called the "Zok culture" with several subgroups: "Zok" proper in southwestern Hungary, "Mako" in the Koros and Maros basins of southeastern Hungary, and "Nyirseg" in northeastern Hungary. In the eastern Alpine area, it is better known as "Laibach-Ljubljana culture
see Excel file Supplementary Table 5: Individuals from Britain, Ireland, and Central Europe included in the time transect analyses (n=2484)
