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| Verona Arena | |
|---|---|
 The Arena seen fromPiazza Bra. | |
 Interactive map of the Verona Arena area | |
| General information | |
| Type | Amphitheatre |
| Location | Verona, Italy |
| Completed | AD 30; 1996 years ago (30) |
| Other information | |
| Seating capacity | 22,000 |
TheVerona Arena is aRoman amphitheatre located in the historic center ofVerona, Italy. It is among the best-preserved ancient amphitheatres to have survived into the modern era. This remarkable state of preservation is largely due to systematic restoration efforts that began in the 16th century.[1]
During the summer months, the Arena hosts theArena di Verona Festival, with opera seasons that have run uninterrupted except by wars since 1913.[note 1] Throughout the rest of the year, it serves as a concert venue.
In the absence of written sources regarding the amphitheatre’s construction, historical proposals for when it was built range from the 1st to the 3rd century. HistorianPirro Marconi suggested a date between the second and third decades of the 1st century—spanning the lateAugustan and earlyTiberian periods—while more recently, Luigi Beschi leaned toward the mid-1st century.[2]
To more accurately date the Arena, scholars have compared it to theamphitheatre of Pula, which shares similarities with Verona's in both stylistic and technical aspects. Both belong to a common geographical and cultural region, and some historians have hypothesized that they may have been designed by the same architect and constructed by the same workforce.[2] The Pula amphitheatre is generally dated to the Augustan period, suggesting that the Arena of Verona may have been built around this time.
Additional clues aiding in the dating process include the amphitheatre's decorations, particularly atuff sculpture depicting a life-sizedgladiator’s head encased in a helmet. This helmet features two round openings revealing the fighter’s eyes, with a visor composed of two sections meeting precisely at the face’s midline. The cheek guards, starting narrow at the ears, widen to cover the entire face except the eyes and appear to be fastened by two crossed straps beneath the chin. This helmet style emerged at the end of the Augustan era, around 10–20 AD. This narrows the construction window to the late reign ofAugustus and the early reign ofClaudius. Given that statues were typically crafted at the end of a building’s construction, Pirro Marconi inferred that the Arena was completed by approximately 30 AD.[3]
The amphitheatre were part of the monumentalization projects in Verona during theJulio-Claudian era, which also included the Forum of Verona and the embellishment of the city’s gateways. Both the Verona and Pula amphitheatres predate the construction of the Colosseum, representing new developments in the evolution of this architectural form.[1]
Much of the amphitheatre’s history in antiquity remains obscure. The city played a role in the war betweenVitellius andVespasian in 69 AD. with the latter selecting Verona as a stronghold due to its surrounding open fields, ideal for deploying cavalry. However, thecity walls had become inadequate, partly because the amphitheatre stood just outside them. To address this, Vespasian ordered the construction of a rampart and the excavation of the Adigetto, a long moat south of the city center that remained in use into theMiddle Ages. This project confirms that by 69 AD, the amphitheatre was already built.
EmperorGallienus faced prolonged conflicts to repel the3rd-century barbarian invasions, employing Verona in his innovative elastic defense strategy, which relied on key cities such asMediolanum,Verona, andAquileia. In 265, he refurbished Verona’s late Republican walls and construct a new 550-meter section of curtain wall to encompass the Arena, resolving the issue of its dominant position outside the earlier Republican defenses.[4] In 1874, Antonio Pompei conducted excavations around the Arena, uncovering the foundations of theGallienus walls, which ran 5 meters from the amphitheatre. It was also discovered that these walls intersected the rainwater drainage channels, though the Arena remained usable for spectacles thanks to an alternative solution: a large central well, identified in the 18th century. However, the drainage system became less efficient, marking the beginning of the amphitheatre’s decline.[5]
Though unconfirmed, it is possible that the amphitheatre was used for the martyrdom ofChristians. The MarquisScipione Maffei speculated thatFirmus and Rusticus were martyred here in 304, on the same occasion thatBishop Proculus asked to be martyred, but was instead mocked and sent away because he was old.[6]
In 312, Verona played role in the war betweenConstantine andMaxentius, when the latter barricaded himself in the city, and Constantine’s forces laid siege. The assault focused on the amphitheatre, which served as a bastion for the defenders due to its height surpassing theGallienus walls. Two critical clashes of that campaign occurred in front of the Arena: the sortie by the besieged, enablingRuricius Pompeianus to seek reinforcements, and the nocturnal battle, where Constantine faced attacks from both the defenders and arriving reinforcements yet emerged victorious.[7]
This battle is documented in apanegyric to Constantine[8] and depicted in a relief on theArch of Constantine, showing Verona under siege. In the square relief, Constantine is depicted on the left, shielded by a guard and crowned byVictory, while on the right, his army assaults the city as the defenders hurl arrows and javelins from the walls and towers. The rightmost section of the wall, lacking lower-level windows, likely represents the portion enclosing the Arena.[7]
The rise ofChristianity and the subsequent end ofgladiatorial games, coupled with the inefficiency of public institutions in maintaining the monument, were factors in its abandonment.[6]
Few documents detail the spectacles held in the Verona amphitheatre, with the only surviving literary record being a letter fromPliny the Younger:
From this letter, it can be inferred that Pliny’s friend offered Verona a hunting spectacle, avenatio, as a funeral tribute to his wife. Pliny deems this choice particularly fitting, noting that such spectacles originated as funerary games of Etruscan or Campanian origin.[9]
Several funerary inscriptions of gladiators who died fighting in the Arena have also been discovered in Verona. The least informative is a damaged slab bearing the phrase[famil]ia gladiatoria;[10] a second mentions thesecutor Aedonius, who fought eight times in Verona before being defeated and killed at the young age of twenty-six;[11][12] another pertains to aretiarius namedGenerosus, from the gladiatorial school ofAlexandria, who fought twenty-seven times without defeat and died of natural causes;[12][13] yet another belongs toPardon, aDertonensis, who perished in his eleventh bout.[12]
The most intriguing inscription, however, belongs to a certainGlaucus:[14][note 2] From this, it appears thatGlaucus made a vow toNemesis, a deity revered by gladiators, for his safety, but to no avail. He warns readers not to place too much faith in Nemesis, as a gladiator’s fate also hinged on skill and chance.Glaucus, whose inscription features depictions of aretiarius’s weapons (indicating he was likely aretiarius),[15] must have been a skilled fighter, as his tomb was funded partly by his supporters.[12]
In a house in Verona, just outside theancient Roman walls, amosaic depicting gladiatorial games was uncovered, dating from theFlavian era to the early 2nd century. The mosaic features a central panel with geometric patterns, dolphins, and plant motifs within circles. Surrounding these are panels portraying gladiators, particularly the three central ones. As a purely decorative piece, it is unlikely to depict specific games held in the Verona amphitheatre, yet it includes inscriptions with gladiators’ names, possibly famous local figures.[16]
The mosaic shows aretiarius versus asecutor, with theretiarius on the ground and a referee intervening. Above, the gladiators’ names are nearly faded, but aV (forvicit, “he won”) appears over thesecutor, andISS—likely onceMISS formissus, “spared”—over theretiarius. The central panel depicts aThracian gladiator triumphing over amurmillo lying bloodied on the ground, with the referee raising the victor’s arm; the defeated gladiator’s name,Caecro, is visible. The third scene shows aretiarius defeating another gladiator, who rests his shield on the ground in surrender.[17]
The existence of a gladiatorial barracks in Verona is confirmed by an inscription housed at the Maffeian Lapidary Museum,[18] though some scholars suggest it may refer to an enclosed, open-air area for youths’ physical and recreational activities, not necessarily ruling out a barracks in the classical era.[19]
During theRomano-Germanic kingdom ofTheodoric the Great, the Verona amphitheatre likely underwent maintenance work and hosted spectacles, leading several medieval chronicles to attribute its construction to Theodoric:[20][21]
In the same city, he built a vast house that astonishingly resembles the theatre of Romulus. It has a single entrance and exit, with circular steps allowing easy ascent despite its extraordinary height. It accommodates many thousands of men, who can see and hear one another. There is no certainty about its founder, as this building is still called the house of Theodoric today.
— Chronicon Gozecense, 12th century.
It was under Theodoric that the amphitheatre suffered its most severe damage. The discovery within theTheodoric walls of a block inscribed with the number LXIII from the amphitheatre indicates that much of the outer ring was demolished during the construction of this defensive wall, which extensively reused salvaged materials. This partial demolition was necessary both to procure building materials and to reduce the Arena’s height, deemed too vulnerable if captured during a siege. The structure retained the functionality of itscavea and the ability to host spectacles, as the height reduction of about 12 meters affected only the upper gallery, not the seating tiers.[22]
Subsequent damage to the amphitheatre resulted from natural disasters, including theAdige flood of 589, the earthquake of 1116, and the catastrophicearthquake of January 3, 1117.[23] During the reign ofBerengar, the first devastating invasions by theHungarians forced defenders to bolster fortifications, using the Arena as a stronghold. In those years,Verona’s bishopRatherius created the so-calledRaterian Iconography, depicting Verona as it appeared in the mid-10th century, with its churches, gates, bridges, and walls. The Arena is shown with its outer ring still intact, accompanied by verses describing it as a labyrinth of dark galleries.[24][note 3]
On certain occasions, the Arena’scavea was quarried for marble to support new constructions, particularly after the fire that ravaged the city in 1172.[25] In the 13th century, the first efforts to halt the amphitheatre’s destruction emerged through restorations and commitments outlined in the municipal statutes of 1228. During the communal and Scaliger periods, legal battles reminiscent of ancient gladiatorial games were held within the Arena: to settle uncertain trials, litigants could hire professional fighters, known as champions. These contests drew crowds cheering for their favored combatant, with the oiled, naked fighters determining the trial’s outcome through their strength.[26] EvenDante attended at least one such event, describing it in acanto of theInferno:
As champions stripped and oiled are wont to do,
Watching for their advantage and their hold.
Before they come to blows and thrusts between them,
Thus, wheeling round, did every one his visage
Direct to me, so that in opposite wise
His neck and feet continual journey made.
— Dante Alighieri,Inferno - Canto Sixteen, vv. 22-27.
In 1278, at the behest ofAlberto I della Scala, nearly 200Cathar heretics captured inSirmione by his brotherMastino I della Scala were burned at the stake within the Arena. It was also Alberto I who introduced regulations on the amphitheatre’s use: the 1276 statute decreed that prostitutes could reside solely within the Arena,[27] while the 1310 update mandated its closure and imposed fines for breaking the gates or relieving oneself inside.[28]
These provisions seem contradictory—mentioning prostitutes inhabiting the arcades while simultaneously ordering closure—but this reflects a distinction, persisting until the 1800s, between the inhabited outer arcades and the enclosed innercavea. Exceptions occurred, such as in 1382, when 25 days of festivities, including jousts and spectacles, were held inside for the wedding ofAntonio della Scala to Samaritana da Polenta.[29]
In 1337, the city, indebted from a war against an anti-Veronese league, ceded the Arena’s rental income to the University of Citizens (a consortium of municipal creditors) with the consent ofMastino II della Scala. The monument would not be fully redeemed until 1586.[30]
In 1450, under theVenetian government, new statutes were compiled, including provisions for the Arena, with one particularly significant decree:
Since many crimes are committed in the Arena, and as it is a memorable building that brings honor to the city and should be kept clean, it is established that said Arena must remain closed, with the keys to its gates held in the city’s treasury by the treasurer. Anyone breaking the gates or wall shall be fined 25 lire, and the same penalty applies to anyone destroying a step, moving, or causing a stone to fall for removal from the Arena, and they must repair the damage at their own expense. Anyone bringing and unloading carts of earth, mud, or other materials into or around the Arena shall be fined 100 soldi and must remove the material at their own cost. The jurors of the surrounding districts and those residing in the Arena are obliged to report violations, with the accuser receiving half the fine.
— Statuti Veronesi, Book IV, Chap. 56
The same statute also reaffirmed that prostitutes were required to live in the Arena.[31] This is the earliest official document describing the building as memorable,[30] sparking its celebration by literati and a growing interest during theRenaissance in its critical and historical analysis. In Verona’s 1400s cultural milieu, architects and artists likeGiovanni Maria Falconetto andFra Giovanni da Verona rediscovered the Arena’s architectural significance, fundamentally shifting its medieval perception as a labyrinthine relic. Subsequently, figures such asGiovanni Caroto,Sebastiano Serlio,Antonio da Sangallo the Younger,Baldassarre Peruzzi, andAndrea Palladio studied and surveyed it,[32] proposing solutions to ensure its preservation.[33]
_(14577400658).jpg)
The amphitheatre thus began to hold great importance for the civic community.Verona was the first city, as early as the 1500s, to initiate a series of efforts prioritizing the protection and restoration of antiquities.[32] A key step was the partial redemption of the mortgage from the University of Citizens, enabling the expulsion of prostitutes from the arcades in 1537, which were then leased to artisans and merchants. In the mid-16th century, a gradual renewal ofBra, the large square facing the amphitheatre commenced, amid widespread concern for the city and its main monument. On May 24, 1568, a restoration of the amphitheatre—then in a state of neglect—was approved, based on a plan inspired by the studies of architects such asCaroto andPalladio.[32] The restoration, focusing on thecavea, began but was halted in 1575 due to a severe plague afflicting the Scaliger city. By 1586, the municipality fully redeemed the Arena from the University of Citizens.[34]
Further restoration resumed in 1651 but paused in 1682, with additional significant interventions in 1694 and 1699, including partial repairs to the seating tiers. In the early 1700s, major maintenance ceased to allow for archaeological excavations within the Roman amphitheatre. These began in 1710 with Ottavio Alecchi, who uncovered the central well and an elliptical channel facing the first step, noting it was once covered by stone slabs with central circular holes 7 cm in diameter.[35]
In 1728, MarquisScipione Maffei, a pivotal figure in the study and restoration of the monumental structure, publishedDegli Anfiteatri e singolarmente del Veronese, marking a significant shift toward a scientific and archaeological approach to the monument, prioritizing its preservation.[36] In this work, he criticized excavations in thecavea that altered its original internal configuration.[37] For this text, Maffei conducted thorough historical research and monument surveys, including excavations that yielded several finds. He identified key archaeological issues:[38] the division of the seating tiers into sections and wedges; the crowning of the upper interior with aloggia; the placement and height of thepodium, which he calculated at 1.53 meters and later reconstructed; the purpose of underground conduits, which he argued could not have flooded the Arena; and the central well, previously thought to support thevelarium, but which he interpreted as a rainwater drainage system.
From September 1728 to July 1729, significant efforts cleared a 120 cm layer of earth covering the arena floor, while from 1731 to 1735, the wing was restored and reinforced. Work resumed in 1761, with tasks including excavation, surveying the ellipse, theeuripus, and the podium, as well as creating a model up to the second tier ofvomitoria to accurately reposition the steps, initiating a thorough revision of prior, less rigorous efforts. These works halted in 1772 due to funding shortages, resumed in 1780, and stopped again three years later.[39]
_b_453.jpg)
On February 26, 1590, the first documented joust took place inside the Arena,[40] despite the ordinance to keep thecavea closed not yet being lifted, though it was gradually falling into disuse. Its use remained exceptional until the 17th century, when the interior, alongside the exterior, began to be leased out. On May 29, 1622, aGiostra della Quintana was held inside, described by chroniclers for its participation of knights not only from Verona but also from abroad, including some fromSweden. Another memorable joust occurred on May 4, 1654.[40]
Daytime spectacles within the amphitheatre became immensely popular in the 18th century,[41] with the last joust held on November 20, 1716, in honor of theElector ofBavaria, organized byScipione Maffei, who lamented that Verona’s nobles no longer held such events there. From that year, contracts leasing the monument’s interior shifted from equestrian activities to troupes of actors and dancers, who erected stages within the arena. The first precisely documented performance was Maffei’sMerope, staged in July 1713 byLuigi Riccoboni’s company.Carlo Goldoni attended one such show in July 1733, leaving a description in hisMemoirs of the setting and atmosphere, with nobles and the wealthy seated in chairs and the common folk on the tiers.[39]
Among occasional attractions, in January 1751, a rhinoceros stunned spectators, who could scarcely believe such a creature existed.[42] The most favored spectacle, however, was bull hunting, pitting a bull (or sometimes oxen) against dogs trained by butchers. In September 1786,Goethe visited Verona and marveled at the amphitheatre—the first major ancient monument he encountered—noting with surprise that the popularpallone game was not held inside.[42]
In 1805, under French rule,Napoleon Bonaparte visited the amphitheatre on June 15, witnessing a bull hunt inside. During this visit, the government allocated funds for its restoration: Luigi Trezza was tasked with planning the work, aiming to replace missing steps, restore thepodium, repair the most damaged vaults, refurbish staircases to the first and second tiers ofvomitoria, and the larger stairs to the third tier, and seal cracks in the seating tiers. Trezza devised a stucco for the fissures—used until 1825—made of quicklime, crushed bricks, and iron filings.[43]
On January 1, 1807, theDeputation for Public Ornament was established, tasked with preserving the Arena. In 1816, following Verona’s transfer to theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, it was renamed theCommission for Ornament. In 1817, excavations outside the amphitheatre traced the continuation of the channel aligned with its major axis, followed as far asPalazzo Ridolfi, as noted by an inscription there, and uncovered the foundations of theGallienus walls, which intersected the channel.
In 1820, the municipality ordered the eviction of residents from the Arena, assigning 42 arcades for storage use. Evicting 36 tenants was a crucial step toward the monument’s reclamation and comprehensive restoration. This met fierce resistance from occupants, some of whom claimed centuries-long tenure passed down through generations.[44] That same year,Podestà Da Persico met with Austrian EmperorFrancis I to outline the monument’s needs, prompting the municipality to develop a work plan.[44]
The project focused on the exterior, demolishing houses too close to the Arena and excavating around it to expose its base, buried about two meters deep due to sediment from repeated floods until the construction of retaining walls.[45] The average level of theBra was also lowered by about 70 cm, sloping gently from the Gran Guardia toward the Arena, and theListon’s elevation was adjusted.[46] This transformedthe square before the Arena and the Arena itself: lowering the square restored the monument’s proportions, while demolishing the New Mercy Hospital, fourteen houses toward San Nicolò, and military furnaces abutting the municipal walls, alongside the Gran Guardia’s completion, lent greater space and coherence to the ensemble.[47]
_-_n._6700_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg)
In 1866,Veneto joined theKingdom of Italy, yet theCommission for Ornament persisted, renamed theCommission for Civic Ornament. In 1876, it was replaced by theAdvisory Commission for Monument Conservation, established in each province of the kingdom. During this period, Count Antonio Pompei emerged as Verona’s most active figure in addressing restoration challenges, publishing essays between 1872 and 1877 aimed at reconstructing the amphitheatre’s original appearance. He also oversaw the restoration of the third tier ofvomitoria, though uncertainties during the work prevented a full overhaul of thecavea.[49]
DuringWorld War II, theSuperintendency for Monuments, led by architect Piero Gazzola, installed temporary buttresses inside and outside the wing to shield it from bombings. After the war, these were removed, and the wing was statically reinforced according to the design of engineerRiccardo Morandi: a post-tensioning system inserted 5 mm steel cables into holes drilled from above, aligned with the pillars, then filled with pressurized liquid cement. This reinforcement of the wing’s five vertical pillars occurred between 1953 and 1956.
Further interventions from 1954 to 1960 cleared remaining arcades of warehouses and shops, demolishing non-original structures such as partition slabs, wooden stairs, internal tiled roofs, and counter-walls. In 1955, about fifty wooden gates were replaced with the current iron ones. From 1957 to 1959, the lower ramps of four internal staircases were restored, arcade floors were paved with pebbles, central stone walkways were laid in theambulacra, underground conduits and the central well were cleaned, the entire outer ring was restored, and cracks between thecavea’s steps were sealed. In 1960, the old central pit cover was demolished, a new slab was built, and an iron railing was installed along the top step to prevent spectators from falling, despite some controversy.[50]
Since 1984, during the Christmas season, a steel comet star designed by architect Rinaldo Olivieri, 70 meters high and 82 meters long, was placed inPiazza Bra, with its tail resting inside the Arena.[51] However, in January 2023, during routine dismantling, part of the star fell, causing irreparable damage to several steps;[52] consequently, from Christmas 2024, only the star’s “head” has been installed, with its traditional tail replaced by light beams.[53]
Bull hunting remained popular into the early 1800s, even earningNapoleon Bonaparte’s approval. Later that year, the Arena served as a detention camp for Austrian prisoners, who dismantled the comedy stage for firewood. In November 1807, Napoleon, revisiting Verona, observed the start of another bull hunt.[54]
In May 1815, marking Verona’s return to theAustrian Empire and a visit by ArchdukeHeinrich Johann Bellegarde, viceroy of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a bull hunt was held, followed by corn distribution to the poor—a common blend of entertainment and charity. In March 1816, to celebrate EmperorFrancis I and his wifeMaria Ludovika, bull hunting was replaced by a jockey race, preceded by corn distribution via carts sent to parishes.[54]
On November 24, 1822, concluding theCongress of Verona, a grand choreography with a lyrical prelude,The Holy Alliance, was staged. The text was byGaetano Rossi, with music composed and conducted byGioachino Rossini: the spectacle opened with Fate summoning four chariots from different directions—those ofMinerva (with allegories of arts, abundance, and happiness),Ceres (with nymphs and commerce),Neptune (with maritime spirits), andMars (with strength, valor, and warriors). Four different dances unfolded as the chariots went around in circles, ensuring that all spectators could see the performance, culminating in a collective display around a statue ofConcordia.[55]
In the 1800s, equestrian competitions, cycling races,hot air balloon displays, acrobatic gymnastics, comedies, andtombola games were highly popular. Notable events included the 1838 tombola attended by EmperorFerdinand I, highlighted by thousands of colorful umbrellas opening during a downpour, and the 1857 event with EmperorFranz Joseph, featuring a widely enjoyed tombola andgreasy pole spectacle. Rossini’s music returned to the Arena on July 31, 1842, following the success of hisStabat Mater at theTeatro Filarmonico ten days earlier. The first opera season occurred in 1856, with performances ofIl Casino di Campagna andLa fanciulla di Gand by Pietro Lenotti, the first act ofGaetano Donizetti’sL’elisir d’amore, and Rossini’sThe Barber of Seville. The Arena also served civic purposes, hosting the November 16, 1866, celebration ofVeneto’s annexation to theKingdom of Italy in the presence ofVictor Emmanuel II. After 1866, as Verona remained a military city, the army grew closer to the populace, occasionally staging carousel spectacles inside. Additionally, the first Sunday of June featured a fireworks display for theAlbertine Statute celebration.[56]
From the early 1900s until the 1913Aida that launched theArena di Verona Festival, circus performances were the most successful shows. Since 1913, the Verona amphitheatre has become the world’s largest open-air opera venue, preserving its role as a space for popular entertainment while upholding the monument’s dignity. It has also occasionally hosted gladiators, wild beasts, and Christian persecutions for historical film productions.[57]
In music, the Arena of Verona has historically hosted the finals of theFestivalbar, and since 2017, it has been the venue for the annual Power Hits Estate, an awards event organized byRTL 102.5.[58] It has also welcomed numerous pop concerts, leveraging the prestige of this unique open-air theatre, featuring a wide array of Italian and international artists.Zucchero Fornaciari holds the record for fourteen consecutive performances.[59]
The Verona amphitheatre hosted the final of the 1970 edition of the television programGames Without Borders.[60]
In sports, the Arena has served as the finish line for the final stage of theGiro d’Italia in the1981,1984,2010,2019, and2022 editions. On May 23, 1988, at the twilight of theCold War, it hosted a historic friendly volleyball match between the men’s national teams of theUnited States and theSoviet Union.[61] On August 15, 2023, it welcomed the opening match of the2023 Women’s European Volleyball Championship betweenItaly andRomania.[62] In 2026, the Arena will host the closing ceremony of theWinter Olympics and the opening ceremony of theWinter Paralympics for theMilan-Cortina d’Ampezzo 2026.[63] Preparations for both events included construction to improve the safety and accessibility fordisabled people.[64]
The Verona amphitheatre was constructed approximately 70–80 meters from theRepublican city walls,[65] facing the southern corner of the city’s fortifications. This positioning indicates it was not part of the original city plan, much like theTheatrum Veronense. The mid-1st century BC, when the city was refounded within theAdige’s bend, was a time of civil wars, making it impractical to build such a massive structure near the walls, which would have compromised the defensive system. Thus, it is deduced that the amphitheatre was erected during a period of peace, likely coinciding with the onset of the imperial era.[66] Supporting this, in the 3rd century, amid thecrisis,military anarchy, andbarbarian invasions, EmperorGallienus deemed it necessary to build anew wall incorporating the Arena.
Its location outside the walls suggests that the city’s interior was nearly fully developed.[67] This placement also necessitated a rethinking of road networks, as the amphitheatre drew tens of thousands from the city, countryside, and nearby towns, potentially overwhelming access gates (notably, theVia Postumia, entering atPorta Borsari, was already very busy). Consequently,Porta Leoni andPorta Borsari were refurbished, and two smaller exits were likely added near the amphitheatre. Its orientation further underscores its connection to the city despite its later construction: the major axis aligns with the urban grid’scardines, and the minor axis parallels thedecumani. This alignment facilitated linking the amphitheatre’s sewers to the city’s system.
Notably, its external position eased access from the countryside and other cities. Spectacles, held infrequently due to their high cost, naturally attracted audiences from beyond Verona.
Several inscriptions found near the amphitheatre, given its size, undoubtedly pertain to it. One, indecipherable, readsCON,[68] while another appears to be[...] ET DEDIT.[69] A complete inscription states:[70]
Nomine
Q(uinti) Domini Alpini
Licinia mater
signum Dianae et venatoriem et salientes t(estamento) f(ieri) i(ussit)
It records that a wealthy woman, in her son’s name, bequeathed funds to erect a statue ofDiana, stage a hunting spectacle (venatio) in the Arena, and installsalientes—possibly water conduits or fountains—within the amphitheatre.
Additionally, an original Arena step was found, inscribed with a seat number:I / LOC(US) IIII, LIN(EA) I,[71] meaning wedge one, step four, seat one.
The amphitheatre’s foundational layout is anellipse forming the arena (the central performance space), likely traced on the ground at the project’s outset. The outer perimeter was derived by drawing a concentric line around this ellipse. This base ellipse was constructed using four circles: two smaller ones (along the major axis) derived by dividing the semi-major axis into five 25-foot segments, with two segments forming the radius at the axis’s ends, and a larger curve with a seven-part, 25-foot radius centered at the outer extension’s end.
The arena measures 75.68 m x 44.43 m (250 x 150Roman feet), a round figure reflecting the simplicity of the base module, with a 5:3 ratio between the major and minor axes. Thecavea spans 39.40 m (125 feet), while the amphitheatre’s maximum dimensions (major x minor axis) are 152.43 m x 123.23 m (520 x 420 Roman feet).[72] These dimensions rank the Arena eighth among Roman amphitheatres and fourth in Italy, following theColosseum, theCampanian Amphitheatre, and theAmphitheatre of Milan.[73]
The amphitheatre was built on a slight artificial elevation (now below street level), with foundations of anopus caementiciumplate. A 1.60 m height difference exists between the outermost ring and the podium base.[72] Rainwater drainage, critical for such a large structure, was managed by three annularsewers beneath the floors of concentric galleries supporting the first level. Two additional sewers along the major and minor axes channeled runoff to theAdige, one explored for about 100 meters. This sewer system was highly efficient, with a consistent two-meter height.[72] Constructed with sections of pebble masonry bound by mortar, interspersed with three horizontal brick rows, they were capped with large stone slabs—a technique mirrored in Verona’s civic sewer system.
The monument’s current appearance differs significantly from its original form, particularly due to the loss of the outer ring, which served as the true monumental facade—a role now filled by the inner front. The only surviving segment of this outer ring is theAla (wing), comprising four arches. This ring had no major structural purpose but acted as a grand facade: its arches mirrored the hollow spaces beneath thecavea, while massive pillars completed the internal lines of force. The three-tiered arcades externally expressed the presence of two galleries and an upper portico, witharchitraves capping the internalvaults. This design aesthetically and spatially articulated the complex internal volumes.
Connections between the facade and the underlying structure are limited to shared foundations and thebarrel vaults of the third gallery and the one above. The facade features three stacked tiers of arches, built entirely from well-squared blocks of red ammonitic limestone, a stone prevalent in the province of Verona. The first-tier arches stand 7.10 m high, the second 6.30 m, and the third 4.50 m, enhancing the vertical thrust when viewed from below. The first-tier pillars measure 2.30 m wide by 2.15 m deep (nearly square), topped by apilaster ending in aTuscan capital at thecornice level.[74] Arches rest on two semi-capitals, terminating on the pilaster just above its midpoint. Above the Tuscan capitals, a band of blocks bears the entrance numbers (LXIV to LXVII survive on theAla, with others scattered around), followed by another identical band supporting the upper cornice. With 72 arches and entrances, the numbering—starting with I at the western entrance—suggests that sector’s prominence, proceeding counterclockwise.[75]
The second tier mirrors the first, save for its reduced height. The third tier varies slightly: Tuscan capitals persist without pilasters, and the cornice comprises aentablature with a frieze and additional cornice. Inside, brackets once supported portico beams, not thevelarium,[38] as some scholars speculated (its weight would have required external brackets).
Using the same order across all tiers is typical of amphitheatres like those inNîmes orPula.
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From the amphitheatre’s interior, along the gallery axis, lies anopus caementicium mass 6.80 m from thecavea’s outer edge, followed by the first gallery (3 m wide, 3.60 m high), then the second (3.30 m wide, 9.10 m high) 11.18 m beyond, and the third (4.30 m wide, 8.15 m high) 14.45 m from the second.[76] Above the outermost gallery stood another of equal size, supporting thecavea’s portico.
These three concentric galleries divided the structure into four zones. From the arena to the first gallery lies the first tier of seating, themaenianum. The first annular corridor, thepraecinctio, rested on the first gallery’svault, separating the second seating tier between the first and second galleries. Above the second gallery’s vault was the second annular corridor, dividing the second and third tiers. Here, the 64vomitoria staircases become more intricate and begin intersecting.[77] A third annular corridor separated the third and fourth tiers, followed by a portico aligned with the outermost gallery, its roof supported by a colonnade facing thecavea and brackets (still visible on theAla) on the outer side.
The grandest entrance, to the west towardPorta Borsari and theVia Postumia, features a central vault twice the height of others, reaching beneath thecavea’s tiers. The western sector was likely the most significant,[76] as evidenced by the differing staircase layouts: the western sector’s symmetrical spaces feature straight corridors leading directly to lower tiers, while the eastern sector’s irregular corridors channeled most spectators to upper tiers. The western entrance likely welcomed the procession inaugurating the games.[74]
The construction technique is standardized throughout, with materials undecorated beyond thearchitectural order on the exterior facade, though statues—some unearthed during excavations—are preserved at the Archaeological Museum at the Roman Theatre. The materials are consistent across the structure, reflecting its durability and limited renovations. The seating tiers, however, underwent repeated repairs due to constant wear and medieval quarrying; theRenaissance restoration further altered the originalcavea layout, erasing corridors between sectors and complicating reconstruction of the 64 access staircases’ exact positions,[75] though all remain extant.
The outer facade and pillars were crafted from cut red ammonitic limestone fromValpolicella, a common Veronese calcareous stone, used in both pink and white variants creating a widespread dichromatism. Marble blocks were shaped to stack without mortar, with visible faces left unpolished for a rustication effect, speeding construction.[73]
Rubble masonry was used for the interior walls, with a mixed facing of bricks and pebbles: alternating courses of large pebbles and three rows of dark red bricks (one or one-and-a-half feet, about 8 cm thick), with mortar joints of 1–2 cm.[75] This technique dominates near entrances, while most of the structure comprises cementitious material poured intowooden formworks. Thevaults are alsoopus caementicium of mortar and pebbles over wooden formworks, with board imprints still visible.
The sewers were constructed in mixed masonry, with pebble sections bound by mortar alternating with three brick rows, covered by large stone slabs. Beneath the arena lies a subterranean chamber (8.77 m wide, 36.16 m long) of unknown purpose.[78]
In the early 1st century, Verona was a major city, comparable toMediolanum, strategically positioned at the plains’ edge of theVia Claudia Augusta, following theAdige to theBrenner Pass andRaetia. These factors influenced the amphitheatre’s size, accounting for Verona’s substantial population, its countryside, and likely nearby centers such asVicetia andBrixia, which lacked amphitheatres.[1] Future demographic growth was also considered, as building such a costly structure required avoiding the need for a second venue (as inPozzuoli) or expansion (as inPula) due to miscalculation.[79]
Recent estimates for summer performances put the arena's capacity at22000, though the stage occupies about a third of the seats, and the upper portico is gone. Thus, inRoman times, it likely held around30000 spectators.[73][77][79]
Over time, various legends have emerged about the Arena’s origins. In theMiddle Ages, one story claims that a Veronese nobleman, condemned to death for a heinous crime, promised the city’s leaders he would build a vast edifice overnight to house all citizens and host spectacles, bargaining his soul with the devil to complete it between the evening and morningHail Marys.[80][81][82]
That night, all the devils of Hell converged on Verona, but the nobleman repented, praying to the Holy Virgin, who granted a miracle: the sun came up two hours earlier. In the morning, at the first note of theHail Mary, the demons all sank back into the ground, leaving the building, though well underway, incomplete: this is said to be the origin of theAla.[83][84][85]
Other medieval legends attributed its construction to the Devil because of its immense size, considered impossible to build using human hands.[86] Additional tales creditedKing Theodoric, likely because he restored it and held numerous spectacles there.[20][21]
| Preceded by | Winter Olympics Closing Ceremony 2026 | Succeeded by TBC French Alps |
| Milan Cluster | |
|---|---|
| Valtellina Cluster |
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| Cortina d'Ampezzo Cluster | |
| Val di Fiemme Cluster | |
| Verona | |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Geographic | |
| Other | |
45°26′20″N10°59′40″E / 45.43889°N 10.99444°E /45.43889; 10.99444
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