Valentinian dynasty Dynasty of the Roman Empire | |
|---|---|
| 364–455[a] | |
 Western and Eastern Roman Empires 395 | |
| Status | Imperialdynasty |
| Capital | Roma Constantinopolis Ravenna |
| Government | Absolute monarchy |
| Western Roman emperors | |
• 364–375 | Valentinian I |
• 375–383 | Gratian |
• 388–392 | Valentinian II |
• 392–421/421–425 | Interregnum |
• 421 | Constantius III |
• 425–455 | Valentinian III |
| Eastern Roman emperors | |
• 364 | Valentinian I |
• 364–378 | Valens |
| Historical era | Late antiquity |
• Ascent of Valentinian I, Division of Empire | 364 |
• Battle of Adrianople, Death of Valens | 9 August 378 |
| 392 | |
| 455[a] | |
TheValentinian dynasty, commonly known as theValentinianic dynasty, was a ruling house of five generations of dynasts, including fiveRoman emperors duringlate antiquity, lasting nearly a hundred years from the mid fourth to the mid fifth century. They succeeded theConstantinian dynasty (r. 306–363) and reigned over theRoman Empire from 364 to 392 and from 425 to 455, with aninterregnum (392–425), during which theTheodosian dynasty ruled and eventually succeeded them. The Theodosians, who intermarried into the Valentinian house, ruled concurrently in the east after 379.
The Valentinian dynasty's patriarch wasGratianus Funarius, whose sonsValentinian I andValens were both made Roman emperors in 364. Valentinian I's two sons,Gratian andValentinian II both became emperors. Valentinian I's daughterGalla marriedTheodosius the Great, the emperor of theeastern empire, who with his descendants formed the Theodosian dynasty (r. 379–457). In turn, their daughter,Galla Placidia married a later emperor,Constantius III (r. 421–421). Their son,Valentinian III (r. 425–455), who ruled in the west, was the last emperor of the dynasty, whose death marked the end of dynasties in thewestern empire. During the interregnum, Theodosius' sonHonorius ruled in the west, and concurrently with Constantius III in 421. The dynasty has been labelled as Pannonian, based on the family origin inPannonia Secunda in the western Balkans.
Under the Valentinians, dynastic rule was consolidated and the division of the empire into west and east became increasingly entrenched. The empire was subject to repeated incursions along its borders, with the Danube frontier eventually collapsing in the northeast andbarbarian invasions in the west eventually reaching Italy, and culminating with thesack of Rome in 410 during the Theodosian interregnum, which foreshadowed the eventual dissolution of the western empire in the late fifth century.
The Valentinian dynasty (364–455) was a ruling house during theLate Roman Empire (284–476), inLate antiquity (adj. 'late antique'),[3] including the turbulent years of the late fourth century, and the last dynasty of the western empire.[4] The death ofJulian (r. 361–363) ended the Constantinian dynasty. The following thirty years to the death ofValentinian II (r. 383–392) form the first Valentinian dynasty, one of the most critical periods in the late Roman Empire, structuring the empire in ways that would have long lasting consequences.[5] The succeeding thirty years (395–425) from the death of Theodosius I to the death of his sons and ascent of Valentinian III (r. 425–455) saw the foundations of theByzantine Empire in the east and the replacement of the western Roman empire with European kingdoms together with a series of events that led to the emergence of the mediaevalIslamic states.[6] The period of the precedingConstantinian age (293–363) reaffirmed the importance of dynasty in legitimacy and succession.[7] This new dynastic structure would last until 454.[5] The house of Valentinian (the Valentiniani)[8] established continuity and succession from the Constantinians through marriages to a granddaughter and grand-niece of Constantine.[9] This granddaughter,Constantia (362–383), the only surviving child ofConstantius II (r. 337–361), played an important role as a symbol of her dynasty for decades. The Constantinian legacy being described as the "indelible glow of empire".[4] While imperial heirs were relatively rare in this period, the marriages of imperial women raised special concerns, as possibly leading to the raising of pretenders to the throne. A number of them, such as Gratian's half-sisters, took a vow to become dedicated virgins (Latin:sanctae necessitudines,lit. 'holy relatives').[4] Yet it was also an era in which women, either as empresses or as emperor consorts, rose to unprecedented power.[10][11][12] Another feature of this dynasty was the successive appointment of child emperors, radically changing the traditional image of emperors as men of deeds.[13] With Valentinian's division of the empire (Latin:divisio regni) in a new way, in 364, the two parts of the empire (Latin:partes imperii), east and west would progressively develop their own histories, until the split became permanent on the death ofTheodosius I (r. 379–395).[14][15]
The Roman Empire had controlled all lands surrounding the Mediterranean, a "Roman lake" surrounded by foreign lands (Latin:barbaricum,lit. 'barbarian lands'),[16] since the second century, with little loss of territory. These lands stretched from, in the northeast,Hadrian's Wall in the north of England, to the riverEuphrates inMesopotamia in the middle east.[17] The main regions (Latin:regiones) of the empire, from west to east, wereHispania (Spain),Gallia (Gaul, now France),Britannia (Britain),Italia (Italy), in theBalkansIllyrium andThracia,Asia (Asiana, Asia minor), andOriens (Middle east). While on the southern Mediterranean shore layAfrica in the west andAegyptus (Egypt) in the east. However, it faced a number of challenges on its frontiers, including theSasanian Persians to the east, while to the north, what had been small fragmented incursions ofBarbarians was becoming mass migrations of peoples such as theFranks on the lower Rhine, theAlamanni in the formerAgri Decumates lands between the Rhine and Danube and theGoths on the lower Danube.[18] This period was one in which the Roman Empire, already divided on an east–west axis, became consolidated as two empires, following the death of Theodosius I. Although bothpartes continued to cooperate and preserved the constitutional myth of a single jurisdictional unit, and that an emperor rules everywhere, no western emperor would ever rule in the east again, or (apart two brief visits by Theodosius) eastern emperor in the west.[5] The dynasty was relatively short lived in the east, being replaced by the house of Theodosius following the death of the first eastern emperor, Valens, in 378. In the west, following an interlude during which Honorius (r. 393–423), a Theodosian, reigned, Valentinian III continued the dynasty until his death in 455. During this period, the empire struggled against bothexternal migratory tribes and internalpretenders andusurpers, with frequentcivil war. By the end of the dynasty, the western empire was crumbling and Rome had been sacked. The Valentinian dynasty also saw the reintroduction of Christianity after a brief period during which the emperor Julian attempted to reimpose traditional Roman religions, but tolerance and religious freedom persisted for some time in the west.[19][20][21] The dynasty not only saw a struggle between paganism and Christianity, but between two major factions within Christianity, theNicenes and thehomoians.[22]
Julian had died in 363 during anill-fated expedition against the Sasanian Persian capitalCtesiphon. His successor, Jovian was faced with little alternative than to accept the terms laid down bySapor (Shapur), the Sasanian king, ceding a number of provinces and cities to the Persians. Theterms of the peace treaty also forbad the Romans from involvement in Armenian affairs to assistArsaces (Arshak), the Armenian king who had been Julian's ally during the war. This peace was to last thirty years[23]
The major divisions of the late Roman army included a central force (comitatenses),[24] ready for deployment, and the forces stationed in the provinces and on the frontier (ripenses, laterlimitanei,lit. 'on the river banks, or frontiers')[25] under the command of adux (lit. 'leader',pl. duces), e.g.dux Armeniae. Of these thecomitatenses had the higher status and was also called praesental (Latin:praesentalis,lit. 'presence'), i.e. in the presence of the emperor.[26] The third division was the imperial bodyguard (Latin:scholae palatinae,lit. 'Palace Corps'), answering directly to the emperor, but under themagister officiorum (master of the officers). Thesescholae (orscolae,sing.schola orscola[27]) were cavalry units, whose names originally derived from their equipment. Thescholae scutariorum (orscutarii,lit. 'shield bearers') refer to their shields (Latin:scuta, sing.scutum).[28] This was the unit from whichValentinian I, the first of the Valentinian emperors, was drawn.[29] In the armies stationed inThracia andIllyricum the local commander had the title ofcomes rei militaris (lit. 'count for military affairs'), a rank betweendux andmagister. The organisational structure is outlined in the contemporary document, thenotitia dignitatum (lit. list of the offices), a list of all the administrative positions.[d][32] It became common to append the honorificcomes tomagistri positions.[33] TheNotitia lists sixcomites, includingcomes Africae (orcomes per Africam) andcomes Britanniarum, responsible for the defence of Africa and Britain respectively. Other militarycomites include thecomes et magister utriusque militiae (orcomes et magister utriusque militiae praesentalis) andcomites domesticorum (comes domesticorum equitum,comes domesticorum peditum).[34][35][36]
Originally there was a separate command for the infantry under the Master of Foot (Latin:magister peditum) and cavalry under the Master of Horse (Latin:magister equitum), with command in the praesental army specified as e.g.magister peditum praesentalis. Later these posts came under a single command, the Master of the Soldiers (Latin:magister militum)[37][38][39] As the army became increasingly dependent on recruiting forces from neighbouring peoples, predominantly German ("barbarization"), these units were referred to as federate units (Latin:foederati).[40]
Within the Emperor's palace, a military corps (schola), theprotectorum composed of theprotectores domestici (often simplydomestici,sing. protector domesticus;lit. 'protectors of the household'), under the command of thecomes domesticorum. This commander or general was equivalent to themagister officiorum in the civilian branch, but below themagistri militum (field marshals).Protectores (sing. protector) could also be assigned to themagistri or provincial commands. The titleprotector could also be used as anhonorific.[e][42][34][43]
Rome in Italy, as the empire's nominative capital, had become increasingly irrelevant, the seat of power being where the emperor was at any one time, which military considerations meant was frequently the frontiers, and emperors visited the city infrequently. During the late third century, a number of new imperial cities were established,Mediolanum (Milan) in northern Italy andNikomedia in Turkey as the principal residences, while lesser status was awarded toArelate (Arles) inGaul (now France),Augusta Treverorum or Treveri (Trier) in Germany (then part of Gaul),Serdica (Sofia) in the Balkans, andAntioch (Antakya) in Syria, while Rome remained the home of theSenate and aristocracy.[12]
The founding ofConstantinople ("New Rome") in 324 had progressively shifted the administrative axis eastwards, while Mediolanum andAquileia, on the eastern edge of Italy became more important politically. While theeastern empire was centred on Constantinople, thewestern empire was never ruled from the historic capital of Rome, but from Trevorum, then Mediolanum in 381[44] andVienne, Gaul. FinallyHonorius (r. 393–423), besieged byVisigoths in Mediolanum in 402 transferred toRavenna, the capital ofFlaminia et Picenum Annonarium on the north east coast of Italy.[12] The seat of Government returned to Rome in 440 under Valentinian III.[45] Other imperial residences included the Balkan centres ofSirmium andThessalonica. With the division of the empire, power became concentrated in two principal cities.[12] Local government was three tiered withprovinces grouped intodioceses governed byvicarrii, and finally into the three geographically definedpraetorian prefectures (Latin:praefecturae praetoriis, singularpraefectura praetorio). The division by Valentinian and his brother contained one anomaly, with the Balkan Peninsula being initially in the west. The east consisted of a single prefecture, thepraefectura praetorio Orientis, while in the west, there was thepraefectura praetorio Galliarum (Britain, Gaul, Spain) and the centralpraefectura praetorio Italiae, Illyrici et Africae[46]
Officials (officiales,sing. officialis) at thecomitatus (imperial court) and bureaucracy included two major groups (Latin:scholae,sing. schola) with similar functions who acted between the court and theprovinces (Latin:provinciae,sing. provincia). Court officials were known aspalatini (sing. palatinus). Members of thescholae werescholararessing. scholaris.[47] Theschola notariorum were thenotaries (Latin:notarii,sing. notarius), who were clerks that formed the imperial secretariat and who drafted and authenticated documents. Principal among these were the senior secretaries (Latin:primicerii notariorum,lit. 'the first [name] on the wax [tablet] among the notaries',sing.primicerius). Thenotarii carried out a wide range of imperial missions, including being informants.[48][49] The other was theschola agentum in rebus. These were theagentes in rebus, or agents of business, answerable to themagister officiorum (Master of the Officers),[f] who was the head of thepalatine administration orImperial Chancellor, and drew his staff from within their ranks. They could also hold appointments within the central clerical bureaux (sacra scrinia,lit. sacred book chests). Themagister officiorum was also responsible for the organisation of theschola notariorum. Theprimicerius of theschola maintained thenotitia dignitatum,[51] and like themagister drew from the ranks of hisschola, who could also hold positions in thescrinia.[52][50][53]
Three suchscrinia were found at the Imperial court, thescrinium memoriae (Ministry of Requests),scrinium epistularum (Ministry of Correspondence) andscrinium libellorum (Ministry of Petitions), each under a bureau director (Latin:magister scrinii), and thesemagistri scriniorum reported in turn to themagister officiorum.[50][54]
Thepalatini included both civilian and military personnel
Diocletian (r. 284–305) had established a hierarchical system of imperial rule, with two tiers of emperors (Latin:imperatores,sing. imperator), with senior emperors, oraugusti (sing. augustus), and junior emperors, orcaesares (sing. caesar). In this system, the plan was for junior emperors, who established their courts in the minor imperial cities to assist and eventually inherit authority.[12] Periodically, emperors would be awardedvictory titles (or names) to commemorate political or military events.[55] A common title wasmaximus, e.g.Germanicus maximus. The suffix Latin:maximus,lit. 'greatest' indicates victor, with the prefix, the vanquished, in this caseGermania (seeList of Roman imperial victory titles).[56]
During the Republic, the titleconsul (pl.consules), was bestowed on two of the worthiest of men, who had to be at least 42 years old. These were annual appointments and they served as the highest executive officers and also as generals in the army. By the late Roman empire, the title ofconsul was becoming more honorific, and the emperors were increasingly likely to take the title for themselves, rather than bestow it on distinguished citizens.[57] In appointing his infant son asconsul, Theodosius changed the nature of the appointment to that of a family prerogative.[58] Traditionally, years were dated by the consulships (consular dating),[59][60] since consuls took up their position on January 1 (from 153 BC).[61]
Comites (sing. comes,lit. 'companion'), often translated as count,[62] were high-ranking officials or ministers who enjoyed the trust and companionship of the emperor, and collectively were referred to ascomitiva, the governing council of the empire, from which the termcomitatus for the imperial court is derived. The titlecomes could be purely honorific without indicating a specific function, or integral to a descriptive title, as in the military roles.[35]
A.D. 364 was a time of great uncertainty on the late Roman Empire.Julian (r. 361–363), the last Constantinian emperor (Latin:augustus, the official title given to emperors) had died after a very brief reign, in hisPersian War of that year, and theRoman army had electedJovian (r. 363–364), one of his officers, to replace him. Jovian himself died within less than a year, atDadastana, Turkey, while his army was on the way fromAntioch, the capital ofRoman Syria, toConstantinople.[7] Jovian was found dead in his quarters on 17 February 364, under circumstances some considered suspicious.[63]
The fourth century historianAmmianus Marcellinus,[64] recounts that once Jovian's body was embalmed and dispatched to Constantinople, the legions continued on toNicaea in Turkey, where military and civilian staff sought a new emperor. Among several put forward, was that of Flavius Valentinianus (Valentinian), recently promoted to the command of the second division of thescutarii, and this choice received unanimous support. At the time, Valentinian was stationed some distance away atAncyra (Ankara), and was summoned, arriving in Nicaea on 25 February 364.[65]Valentinian (321–375),[66] called Valentinian the Great, was acclaimedaugustus by the general staff of the army. TheConsularia Constantinopolitana[g] and theChronicon Paschale give the date of his elevation as 25/6 February.[67][68]
To avoid the instability caused by the deaths of his two predecessors, and rivalry between the armies, Valentinian (r. 364–375) acceded to the demands of his soldiers and ruled thewestern provinces while elevating his younger and relatively inexperienced brother Valens (b. 328,[66]r. 364–378) as co-augustus to rule over theeastern provinces. The two brothers divided the empire along roughly linguistic grounds, Latin in the west and Greek in the east, and proceeded to also divide the administrative and military structures, so that recruitment became increasingly regionalised, with little exchange.[69] Valens was appointedTribune of the Stables (Latin:tribunus stabulorum orstabuli) on 1 March 364, and theConsularia Constantinopolitana dates his elevation to co-augustus on 28 March 364, at Constantinople.[68][70][71] Both brothers becameRoman consuls for the first time, Valentinian atMediolanum (Milan) and Valens at Constantinople.[68][71] This was the first time that the two parts of the empire were completely separated. The exception was the appointment ofconsuls, in which Valentinian retained precedence.[72][4] Valentinian made the seat of his government Trier, and never visited Rome, while Valens divided his time between Antioch and Constantinople.[8] Valens's wifeDomnica may have also becomeaugusta in 364.[71]
Valentinian and Valens received many titles during their reigns, other than the customary emperor andaugustus. Both were awarded thevictory name ofGermanicus maximus,Alamannicus maximus, andFrancicus maximus to indicate victories againstGermania,Alamanni andFranks, in 368, the year of their second consulship.[67][71][73] In 369 Valens received the victory nameGothicus Maximus and celebrated hisquinquennalia.[71] Valentinian also celebrated hisquinquennalia on 25 February 369 and likewise received the honour ofGothicus Maximus.[71]
Valentinian and Valens were consuls for the third time in 370.[71] 373 was the year of Valentinian and Valens's fourth and last joint consulship.[71] In 373/374, Theodosius themagister equitum's son, was madedux of the province ofMoesia Prima.[74] Valens celebrated hisdecennalia on 29 March 374.[71] At the fall of his father, themagister equitum, the younger Theodosius,dux of Moesia Prima, retired to his estates in theIberian Peninsula, where he married his first wife,Aelia Flaccilla in 376.[74] Gratian's fourth consulship was in 377.[75] Valens's sixth consulship was in 378, again jointly with Valentinian II.[71]
Gratianus Funarius, the patriarch of the dynasty, was from Cibalae (Vinkovci) in theRoman province ofPannonia Secunda, lying along theSava river in the northern Balkans. He had become a senior officer in theRoman army andcomes Africae.[68] His son Valentinian, born 321, also came from Cibalae and joined theprotectores, rising totribunus in 357.[68] Valentinian served in Gaul and in Mesopotamia in the reign ofConstantius II (r. 337–361).[68] Valentinian's younger brother Valens was also born at Cibalae, in 328, and followed a military career.[70] According to theChronicle of Jerome and theChronicon Paschale, Valentinian's eldest son Gratian was born in 359 atSirmium, nowSremska Mitrovica in Serbia, the capital of Pannonia Secunda, to Valentinian's first wifeMarina Severa.[76][75] Gratian was appointed consul in 366 and was entitlednobilissimus puer.[i][76] According to theConsularia Constantinopolitana, Valens's sonValentinianus Galates was born on 18 January 366, and made a consul in 369, and is known to have been titlednobilissimus puer, but died in infancy at Caesarea in Cappadocia (Kayseri) around 370.[71]
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In the summer of 367, Valentinian became ill, while atCivitas Ambianensium (Amiens), raising questions about his succession. On recovery, he presented his then eight-year-old son to his troops on 27 August, asco-augustus (r. 367–383), passing over the customary initial step ofcaesar.[75][76][67][77] Gratian's tutor was therhetorAusonius, who mentioned the relationship in his epigrams and a poem.[76] Around 370, Valentinian's wife Marina Severa died and was interred in the Church of the Holy Apostles and Valentinian married again, weddingJustina.[67] In autumn 371, Valentinian's second son, also called Valentinian, was born to Justina, possibly atAugusta Treverorum (Trier).[78][79] The younger Valentinian would later succeed his father, asValentinian II (r. 375–392). Gratian, who was then 15, was married in 374 to Constantius II's 13-year-old daughter Constantia atTrier.[76][75] This marriage consolidated the dynastic link to Constantinians, as had his father's second marriage to Justina, with her family connections.[4]
Because of their family origins in the Roman province ofPannonia Secunda in the northern Balkans, the Hungarian historianAndreas Alföldi dubbed the dynasty the "Pannonian emperors".[80] On the 9 April 370, according to theConsularia Constantinopolitana and theChronicon Paschale, theChurch of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[71] In 375, the Baths of Carosa (Latin:Thermae Carosianae) – named for Valens's daughter – were inaugurated in Constantinople.[71]
Beginning between 365 and 368, Valentinian and Valens reformed the precious metal coins of theRoman currency, decreeing that allbullion be melted down in the central imperial treasury beforeminting.[68][70] Such coins were inscribedob (gold) andps (silver).[68] Valentinian improved tax collection and was frugal in spending.[68]
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In 368, Valentinian was made aware of reports of magical practices in Rome and ordered the use of torture, but later backed down under protests from the Senate. Nevertheless, many prominent Roman citizens underwent investigation and execution. The affair led to a deterioration in the relations between emperor and senate.[81]On the 9 April 370, according to theConsularia Constantinopolitana and theChronicon Paschale, theChurch of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[71] In 375, the Baths of Carosa (Latin:Thermae Carosianae) – named for Valens's daughter – were inaugurated in Constantinople.[71]
In the fourth century, following Constantine (r. 307–311), Christianity spread steadily throughout the population of the empire, in various forms, such that by the accession of Valentinian in 364 most people were Christian by default. In this time the church became progressively more organized and hierarchical and theepiscopate both more powerful and increasingly drawn from aristocratic andcurial circles. One of the most prominent was the NiceneAmbrose,[82] the son of apraetorian prefect in Gaul, who becamebishop of Milan (374–397). Ambrose was initially aconsularis of the conjoined provinces ofLiguria-Aemilia, but when chosen to be bishop was advanced through all the lower clerical ranks in order to take office.[83] When Ambrose's predecessor as bishop of Milan, theArianAuxentius (355–374), died, the sectarian violence between the Nicene and Arian Christians in the city had increased. The new bishop arrived with soldiers from theRoman army to suppress the violence by force.[84]
Althoughbishops of Rome, such asDamasus (366–384) tended to have greater authority, they were still far from the absolutism of later popes. Christianity in the Greek speaking eastern empire was more complex than the Latin speaking west. The eastern emperors were more inclined to inject themselves into ecclesiastical affairs and historically had threesees that claimed anapostolic foundation, and hence primacy,Alexandria,Antioch andJerusalem.These sees found them themselves competing for power with the newly establishedConstantinople episcopate whose power was growing with the burgeoning imperial bureaucracy. This was the background which Valens found himself having to deal with.[85]
According to the 5th-century Greek historianSozomen, Valentinian was an orthodoxNicene Christian,[68] but was largely indifferent to the ecclesiastical conflicts of his time. Hislaicism was especially welcomed by pagans.[86] On the other hand, his second wife, Justina was a committedhomoian, asect ofArianism. Like Valentinian, her origins were Pannonian, which with the western Balkans was the centre of the anti-Nicene theology, in contrast to the Nicenes of Gaul and Italy.[87]
The 5th-century Greek historianSocrates Scholasticus tells that while serving as in theprotectores Valens refused pressure to offersacrifice in ancient Roman religion during the reign of the pagan emperorJulian (r. 361–363).[70] Valens was also a homoian,[70] and aggressively promoted it, exilingAthanasius theTrinitarian Bishop of Alexandria, soon after his accession in 364.[k][88] His response to ecclesiastical disputes was to uphold the canons ofConstantius II's councils of 368, those of theCouncil of Ariminum (Rimini) in the west and theCouncil of Seleucia in the east. These had both promulgated Arianism.[86] Valentinian's tolerance only went so far, promulgating legislation against heretical sects and unscrupulous clerics,[86] suppressing the meetings ofManichaeans in Rome in 372 and issuing legislation preserved in theCodex Theodosianus.[68] He also legislated againstDonatism amongbishops in 373.[68]
For most of their reign, Valentinian and Valens were involved with defending the empire's frontiers, primarily in the northwest, where the frontier ran roughly along the Rhine and Danube rivers.[89]
In the later years of Valens' reign, geopolitical events began to increasingly bear on the Roman Empire. On the eastern frontier, new problems arose with the incursion of nomads into the settled areas to the south of theSteppes. As the earlierParthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD) became displaced by the more bellicoseSasanian Persians (224–651), the repercussions began to be progressively felt from Eurasia to Eastern Europe.[90] Among these were theHuns, who by the 370s had conquered much of the area north of theCaucasus and Black Sea and were putting pressure on theGoths from theDnieper west. To the Romans, they appeared a much greater threat than the earlierAlans, whom they placed in atributary position. The Romans failed to appreciate the significance of these changes, with catastrophic consequences.[91]
When a party ofAlamanni visited Valentinian's headquarters to receive the customary gifts towards the end of 364, Ursatius, themagister officiorum made them an offering they considered inferior to that of his predecessor. Angered by Ursatius' attitude, they vowed revenge and crossed over the Rhine into RomanGermania and Gaul in January 365, overwhelming the Roman defences.[68][68][92] Although at first unsuccessful, eventuallyJovinus, themagister equitum in Gaul inflicted heavy losses on the enemy at Scarpona (Dieulouard) and atCatalauni (Châlons-sur-Marne), forcing them to retire.[92] An opportunity to further weaken the Alamanni occurred in the summer of 368, when kingVithicabius was murdered in a coup, and Valentinian and his son Gratian crossed the Moenus (Main river) laying waste to their territories.[75][93]
Valentinian fortified the frontier fromRaetia in the east to theBelgic channel, but the construction was attacked by Alamanni at Mount Pirus (the Spitzberg,Rottenburg am Neckar). In 369 (or 370) Valentinian sought to enlist the help of theBurgundians, who were involved in a dispute with the Alamanni, but a communication failure led to them returning to their lands without joining forces with the Romans.[68] Then themagister equitum,Count Theodosius and his son Theodosius (the Theodosi) attacked the Alamanni through Raetia, taking many prisoners and resettling them in thePo Valley in Italy.[74][68][67] A key to Alamanni success was their kings. Valentinian made one attempt to captureMacrianus in 372, but eventually made peace with him in 374.[68]
The necessity to make peace was the increasing threat from other peoples, theQuadi and theSarmatians. Valentinian's decision to establish garrisons across the Danube had angered them, and the situation escalated after the Quadi king, Gabinus, was killed during negotiations with the Romans in 374. Consequently, in the autumn, the Quadi crossed the Danube plundering Pannonia and the provinces to the south.[67] The situation deteriorated further once the Sarmatians made common cause inflicting heavy losses on the Pannonica and Moesiaca legions.[67] However, on encountering Theodosius' forces on the borders ofMoesia in the eastern Balkans, which had previously defeated one of their armies in 373,[74] they sued for peace. Valentinian mounted a further offensive against the Quadi in August 375, this time using apincer movement, one force attacking from the northwest, while Valentinian himself headed toAquincum (Budapest), crossed the Danube and attacked from the southeast. This campaign resulted in heavy losses to the enemy, following which he returned to Aquincum and from there toBrigetio (Szőny, Hungary) where he died suddenly in November.[94]
TheAustoriani, a warlike tribe, had made considerable inroads in to the province ofAfrica Tripolitania. At the time thecomes per Africam (comes Africae), Romanus, was said to be corrupt and to have concealed the real state of affairs from Valentinian and his envoys, having powerful allies at court. EventuallyFirmus, aBerber prince of theIubaleni tribe, led a rebellion in 372, proclaiming himselfaugustus. This time Valentinian dispatched Count Theodosius in 373 to restore order, who immediately had Romanus arrested. After a prolonged campaign in the coastal plains ofMauretania Caesariensis, Theodosius eroded support for Firmus by diplomatic means, the latter committing suicide in 374. Although the African campaign cemented Theodosius' reputation, intrigues following Valentinian's death in late 375 led to an investigation and he was executed atCarthage.[95]
In the east, Valens was faced with the threat of the PersianSasanian Empire and theGoths.[70] Sapor, the Sasanian king hadArsaces murdered in 368, placingArmenia under Persian control. During thesiege of Artogerassa (Artagerk) inArsharunik, Arsaces' sonPapa (Pap) was smuggled out, joining Valens' court, then atNeocaesaria, inPontus Polemoniacus.[96] Valens, fearful of violating the treaty of non-interference that Jovian had signed with Sapor in 363, returned Papa in 369 in the company ofTerentius,dux Armeniae. But Sapor renewed his attempts to subdue Armenia, capturing Artogerassa together with Papa's mother, QueenPharantzem and the royal treasury. At this point Valens decided to act, sending hismagister peditum,Arintheus to join Terentius in the defence of Armenia. Although Sapor signed a treaty directly with Papa and warned off Valens, the latter pressed on, restoringSauromaces (Saurmag), a pretender inIberia in theCaucasus Mountains. Although Sapor retaliated by invading Roman territory, theencounter between the two armies at Vagabanta (Bagrevand) in the spring of 371 was inclusive, and both sides retreated to their respective capitals. Valens, who interpreted the treaty with Sapor as treachery, invited Papa to his court in 373 and arrested him, but the latter escaped. Valens then ordered thedux Armeniae to arrange for Papa to be murdered in 374, which was carried out. Meanwhile, Sapor was demanding a Roman withdrawal from Iberia and Armenia, which Valens refused to do, leading to a long diplomatic conflict regarding the validity of the treaty Jovian had signed. Valens was distracted from his campaign against the Sasanians by wars against theSaracens and theIsaurians.[70] Eventually the conflict between the two sides was overtaken by developments in the western part of Valens territory, once the Danube frontier was breached in 376.[97]
In 366, Valens accused theGoths of breaching their 332 treaty with Constantine by aiding the usurper Procopius in 365. However, relations with the Goths had been deteriorating since Julian's contemptuous dismissal of them in 362. In any case, Valens had already attempted to secure the Danubian frontier, but aseries of campaigns during 367 to 369 failed to subdue the Goths. Valens then had to deal with Goths to the northwest and Sasanians to the east simultaneously, and decided to make peace with the former, by a treaty with kingAthanaric in 369, according toThemistius andZosimus.[98] Under this treaty, the Goths undertook not to cross the Danube. But any respite was short lived due to the continuing westward expansion of the Huns, who were progressively pushing refugees to the banks of theDniester. They soon encountered theTervingi Goths under Athanaric, forcing them to consider crossing the Danube into saferThrace. In early 376 they petitioned Valens to that end, seeking Roman protection, and in the autumn he agreed to this.[70][99] Estimates of the numbers who crossed vary between 90,000 and 200,000, but they outnumbered the Roman troops stationed there. There they were harassed by a corrupt official,Lupicinus, the Thraciancomes rei militaris. Hostilities rapidly escalated, with Lupicinus seizing two of their chieftains,Fritigern andAlavivus. Lupicinus, then realising his management of the Danube crossing had been disastrously mismanaged decided on a full-scale attack on the Goths nearMarcianopolis inMoesia Inferior (Bulgaria), and was promptly routed, leaving Thrace undefended from the north. This was the beginning of theGothic war of 376–382, one of manyGothic wars fought between the Romans and Goths.[100]
Valens was at Antioch at the time, preoccupied with the conflict with the Sasanians over Armenia.[70] Realising the implications of the defeat, he quickly made peace with the Sasanians and made plans to restore control of Thrace. He sought help from his nephew Gratian, now the western emperor, and took his forces across to Europe in the spring of 377, pressing the Goths into theHaemus mountains and meeting the legions dispatched from Pannonia and Gaul at a place called ad Salices, near Marcianopolis. The resultingBattle of the Willows produced heavy casualties on both sides, but no victory. Meanwhile, the Goths were consolidating their position with alliances between them and Huns and Alans, while Gratian was obliged to pull back his forces in February 378 to deal with incursions by theLentienses across the Rhine in Raetia.[75][101] Valens' next sally against the Goths, at Adrianople, in the summer of 378, would prove both disastrous and fatal (seeBattle of Adrianople).[102]
In addition to foreign invaders, Valentinian and Valens had to deal with a series of domestic threats.
On 1 November 365, while on his way toLutetia (Paris), Valentinian learned of the appearance of theusurper Procopius in Constantinople,[68] but was unable to move against him, judging a simultaneous invasion of Gaul by Alamanni a greater threat to the empire.[92] Procopius was a native ofCilicia and was related to the late emperor Julian, under whose command he had served on theMesopotamian frontier. On Julian's death in 363, he accompanied his remains to their burial place atTarsus, Turkey. Rumours that Julian had wished Procopius to succeed him, rather than Jovian, who had been acclaimed, forced him into hiding until Jovian's death in 364. In the spring of 365, sensing the unpopularity of Valens, who had succeeded Jovian in 364, he made plans for a possible coup, persuading some of the legions to recognise him during the emperor's absence in Antioch, directing military operations. Following acclamation he installed himself in the Imperial palace in Constantinople on 28 September. Valens was informed of the coup while preparing to march east fromCaesarea in Cappadocia (Kayseri). Valens now faced an internal rebellion,Gothic incursions inThrace and a Persian threat in the east. He dispatched the Jovii and Victores legions to put down the rebellion. However, Procopius had quickly established himself, winning over generals and military units, including two that Julian passed over,Gomoarius andAgilo. He falsely proclaimed the death of Valentinian I in the west and recruited Gothic troops to his side, claiming his Constantinian legacy.[103] As part of his claim to legitimacy Procopius ensured he was always accompanied by the princessConstantia, still a child, and her mother, thedowager empressFaustina.[4] Constantia had been born to the emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361) and his third wife Faustina after her father's death.[104][105]
Procopius' use of his Constantinian hostages met with some success. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, when Valens forces met the usurper's army at Mygdus[l] on the riverSangarius inPhrygia, Procopius denounced the Pannonian accession and persuaded the advancing legions to defect. Although Procopius suffered a setback in the west, whenAequitius,magister militum per Illyricum, succeeded in blocking all the communicating passages between the eastern and western empires, in the east he rapidly consolidated his hold overBithynia. Following his initial rebuff, Valens regrouped with the aid ofLupicinus, hismagister militum per Orientem and marched on Procopius's army inLydia. Valens then employed a countermeasure to Procopius' use of Constantia to claim legitimacy, by recruitingFlavius Arbitio, a distinguished general under Constantine I. As a result, Gomoarius and Agilo, and who were leading the usurper's forces, again switched sides and led their men over to Valens atThyatira around April 366. Valens now pressed his advantage, advancing into Phrygia, where he encountered Procopius atNacolia, and again the latter's general Agilo defected. Procopius fled, but his own commanders seized and took him to Valens, who ordered all of them beheaded.[107]
In June 367, Valentinian learned of what appeared to be a coordinated uprising. InRoman Britain the provinces were threatened by an invasion ofPicts,Scots andAttacotti from the north, while Franks and Saxond threatened the coastal regions of the lower Rhine. This came to be known as the "Great Conspiracy" (barbarica conspiratio).[108][109] A series of military responses were unsuccessful until Valentinian called on one of his Spanish commanders,Count Theodosius (Theodosius the Elder), who wascomes rei militaris. Embarking at Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer), Theodosius landed atRutupiae (Richborough, Kent) and quickly subdued London. Moving north on 369 he encountered yet another uprising, that ofValentinus, an exiled Pannonian general.[67] Having overthrown and executed Valetinus, Theodosius set about restoring the defences of the frontier and major settlements, establishing a new province ofValentia. Having sent messages regarding his victories back to Valentinian, he returned to court and was promoted tomagister equitum.[68][67][74] In the autumn of 368 theFranks andSaxons were also driven back byJovinus.[67][110][m]
Valentinian I died at Brigetio (Szőny) on 17 November 375 while on campaign against theQuadi in Pannonia. He may have died ofstroke.[76][68][70] Following his death, Valentinian's body was prepared for burial and started its journey to Constantinople, where it arrived the following year,[4] on 28 December 376, but was not yet buried.[67] According to theConsularia Constantinopolitana, his remains were eventually interred in the Mausoleum of Constantine, to which theChurch of the Holy Apostles was attached, on 21 February 382, beside those of his first wife and the mother of Gratian, Marina Severa.[67] He wasdeified, as was the custom, becoming known in Latin:Divus Valentinianus Senior,lit. 'the Divine Valentinian the Elder'.[67][111]
With the death of Valentinian I, in the east Valens became the senioraugustus[67] and the 16-year-old Gratian was the onlyaugustus in the western empire. To complicate matters further for Gratian, certain among Valentinian's generals then promoted his four-year-old second son Valentinian II (Gratian'shalf brother), the army on the Danubeacclaiming himaugustus in apalatine coup[111] atAquincum (Budapest) on 22 November 375, despite Gratian's existing prerogatives.[76][79] The young Valentinian II was essentially the subject of the influence of his courtiers and mother, the Arian Christian Justina.[79] Gratian's tutor, Ausonius, became hisquaestor, and together with themagister militum,Merobaudes, the power behind the throne.[111] Negotiations eventually left Gratian as the senior western emperor.[111] Valens and Valentinian II were consuls for the year 376, Valens's fifth consulship.[71] Neither Gratian or Valentinian travelled much, which was thought to be due to not wanting the populace to realise how young they were. Gratian is said to have visited Rome in 376, possibly to celebrate hisdecennalia on 24 August,[75] but whether the visit actually took place is disputed.[111]
Once Gratian had put down the invasions in the west in early 378, he notified Valens that he was returning to Thrace to assist him in his struggle against the Goths. Late in July, Valens was informed that the Goths were advancing onAdrianople (Edirne) andNice, and started to move his forces into the area. However, Gratian's arrival was delayed by an encounter with Alans atCastra Martis, in Dacia in the western Balkans. Advised of the wisdom of awaiting the western army, Valens decided to ignore this advice because he was sure of victory and unwilling to share the glory.[70][76] Frigern and the Goths sought to avoid conflict and attempted to parlay, but Valens rejected any suggestion of ceding Thrace. On 9 August, Valens ordered his forces towards the Gothic encampment. He again dismissed their embassies, but acceded to the suggestion that sending some noble hostages could calm the Gothic forces, and they were duly dispatched. As this was occurring, a skirmish arose between a group of Roman archers, and some Gothic guards. Immediately, the Gothic cavalry units charged the Roman ranks and the two armies became engaged in full strength. Although the left flank of the Roman army almost reached the enemy camp, they were thrown back. The Romans who were in full armour in intense heat, began to tire in the afternoon, and their lines broke, resulting in a flight from the battlefield. Valens attempted to rally his men unsuccessfully and the Goths fell on the retreating forces until dark fell. While escaping, Valens himself was killed by an arrow, together with two thirds of his forces, and many of its leaders, together with much of the imperial treasure. It is estimated that between fifteen and thirty thousand Roman soldiers died that day. Ammianus Marcellinus andPaulus Orosius described it as the worst Roman military disaster sinceHannibal's victory at theBattle of Cannae in 216 BC.[70][76][102] After his death, Valens wasdeified byconsecratio as Latin:Divus Valens,lit. 'the Divine Valens'.[71]
With the death of Valens in 378, Gratian (r. 367–383) was now the senioraugustus, Valentinian II being only 7 years old, while Gratian was 19. Following the Battle of Adrianople, Gratian moved to Sirmium in the western Balkans to consider his options. The Goths had overrun the eastern Balkans (Moesia and Thrace), while in the west Gaul was under increasing threat from Franks and Alamanni. Gratian quickly realised he could not rule the whole empire on his own, and in particular he needed military expertise. He reached out to the younger Theodosius, son of Count Theodosius, living in retirement on the family estates in Spain, bringing him to Sirmium asmagister equitum. On 19 January, he crowned himaugustus as the eastern emperorTheodosius I (r. 379–395).[74][75][112] In 371, Gratian was consul for the second time,[75] and for the third time in 374.[75]
The newaugustus's territory spanned the Romanpraetorian prefecture of the East, including theRoman diocese ofThrace, and the additional dioceses ofDacia and ofMacedonia. Theodosius the Elder, who had died in 375, was then deified as:Divus Theodosius Pater,lit. 'the Divine Father Theodosius'.[74] Theodosius' first priority was to rebuild the depleted legions, with sweeping conscription laws, but to do so he needed to recruit large numbers of non-Romans, further changing an empire that was becoming increasingly diverse.[113] After several more unsuccessful encounters with the Goths, he made peace, finally ending theGothic war of 376–382, but in doing so settled large numbers of barbarians on the Danube inLower Moesia, Thrace,Dacia Ripensis, andMacedonia. The treaty was signed on 3 October.[114] On 3 August that year, Gratian issued an edict against heresy.[75]
In 380, Gratian was made consul for the fifth time and Theodosius for the first. In September theaugusti Gratian and Theodosius met, returning the Roman diocese of Dacia to Gratian's control and that ofMacedonia to Valentinian II.[75][74] The same year, Gratian won a victory, possibly over the Alamanni, that was announced officially at Constantinople.[75] In the autumn of 378 Gratian issued an edict of religious toleration.[75]
Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died.[75] Gratian remarried, weddingLaeta, whose father was aconsularis ofRoman Syria.[76] Gratian was awarded the victory titles ofGermanicus Maximus andAlamannicus Maximus, andFrancicus Maximus andGothicus Maximus in 369.[75]
On accession, Gratian accepted the traditional title and role ofpontifex maximus (high priest),[n] though by then largely honorific.[116] According toZosimus, in 382 Gratian refused the robe of office of thepontifex maximus from a delegation of senators from Rome.[117] The accuracy of the story is disputed, Zosimus being considered an unreliable source. No such garment was associated with the priesthood.[116][76] Zosimus also stated that Gratian had repudiated the pagan title, as unlawful for a Christian to hold, and that no further emperor used that title, which becamepontifex inclitus (or inclytus), "honourable priest".[116][118]
With the collapse of theDanube frontier[o] under the incursions of the Huns and Goths, Gratian moved his seat from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) toMediolanum (Milan) in 381,[44] and was increasingly aligned with the city'sbishop,Ambrose (374–397), and the Roman Senate, shifting the balance of power within the factions of the western empire.[76][4][117] Gratian was then forthright in his promotion of Nicene Christianity. He ordered the removal of theAltar of Victory from theRoman Senate'sCuria Julia in the winter of 383/383.[p][75][76] State endowments for pagan cults were cancelled, and the Vestals, or vestal virgins (Latin:vestales) deprived of their stipends.[117][76]
In June 383 Gratian took his army through theBrenner pass and into Gaul, where the Alamanni were pushing intoRaetia.[75] At the same time, a rebellion broke out inBritain under Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388), thecomes Britanniarum (commander of the Roman troops in Britain), where there had been a smouldering discontent since the elevation of Theodosius. Magnus Maximus, who had served under thecomes Theodosius and had won a victory over thePicts in 382, was proclaimedaugustus by his troops in the Spring of 383 and crossed the channel, encamping nearLutetia (Paris). While the legions on the Rhine welcomed him, those in Gaul remained loyal to Gratian. After five days of skirmishes between the two forces, Gratian's troops began to lose confidence in him and his General (magister peditum),Merobaudes defected to this usurper, forcing Gratian to flee towards the Alps, accompanied by some cavalry. Gratian was pursued byAndragathius, Maximus'magister equitum who apprehended him crossing the Rhone atLugdunum (Lyon).[119] On 23 August 383, according to theConsularia Constantinopolitana, Gratian, then 24, and his ministers were executed.[120][75][121] Having secured Gratian's territories, Maximus then established his court at the former imperial residence in Trier.[122]
The body of Constantia, Gratian's first wife, who had died earlier that year, arrived in Constantinople on 12 September 383 and was buried in the complex of the Church of the Holy Apostles (Apostoleion) on 1 December, the resting place of a number of members of the imperial family, starting with Constantine in 337, under the direction of Theodosius, who had embarked on making the site a dynastic symbol. This was the last occasion that a member of the western imperial family was buried in the east, a new mausoleum being built atSt Peter's Basilica in Rome.[4][75] According toAugustine of Hippo'sThe City of God andTheodoret'sHistoria Ecclesiastica, Gratian and Constantia had had a son, who died in infancy before 383 but had been born before 379.[75] Gratian was deified asLatin:Divus Gratianus,lit. 'the Divine Gratian'.[75][123] His remains were finally interred in Mediolanum in 387 or 388.[75]
On the death of Gratian, the 12-year-old Valentinian II (r. 375–392) became the soleaugustus in the west. Maximus attempted to persuade Valentinian to move his court to Trier, but Ambrose, suspecting treachery, made excuses while securing the alpine passes. Maximus then demanded recognition from Theodosius.[119] Although Valentinian's court looked east to Theodosius for assistance, the latter was preoccupied with establishing his own dynasty, having elevated his eldest sonArcadius (r. 383–408) toaugustus on hisquinquennalia, on 19 August 383.[74] He was also dealing with threats on his eastern frontier that precluded any western military excursions.[124]
In the summer of 384, Valentinian met his junior co-augustus Theodosius, and in November he celebrated hisdecennalia.[78] The position of the senior emperor Valentinian, was strengthened during the first few months of Maximus' rule, while Ambrose was conducting negotiations on the emperors' behalf.[121]
Eventually Theodosius decided to recognise the usurper and brokered an uneasy peace agreement between Valentinian and Magnus Maximus in the summer of 384 which endured for several years.[119] Under this agreement Maximus kept the western portion of the Empire including Britain, Spain and Gaul, while Valentinian ruled over Italy, Africa andIllyricum, allowing Theodosius to concentrate on his eastern problems and the threat to Thrace.[79][125]
The peace with Magnus Maximus was broken in 386 or 387, when he invaded Italy from the west. Valentinian, escaped with Justina, reaching Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) in the eastern empire in the summer or autumn of 387, appealing to Theodosius for aid. Magnus Maximus reached Milan to begin his consulship of 388, where he was welcomed by Symmachus.[126] Valentinian II's sisterGalla was then married to the easternaugustus at Thessalonica in late autumn.[78][74] Justina, widow of Valentinian I and mother of Valentinian II, died in summer 388.[78] In June, the meeting of Christians deemed heretics was banned.[78] In summer 388, Italy was recovered for Valentinian from Magnus Maximus, whom Theodosius defeated at theBattle of Poetovio and eventually executed atAquileia on 28 August.[121][78][126]
Following the defeat of Magnus Maximus by Theodosius in 388, Valentinian was restored to the throne. On 18 June 389, Theodosius arrived in Rome to display his second son, the five-year-oldHonorius. He reconciled with Magnus Maximus' supporters and pardoned Symmachus, then in hiding, since he needed the support of the Gallo-Hispanic aristocracy, of which both he and Maximus were members. Theodosius then decided to stay in Milan, making sure that Valentinian was under the influence of his supporters. Overall, Theodosius, a skilled diplomat, made it clear that in practice he was the sole emperor of the two empires.[127]
It was not until 15 April of 391 that Theodosius decided to return to the east, to deal with a family conflict between his eldest son Arcadius, now fourteen, and his second wife Galla. Before his departure he consolidated his hold on the empire. He dispatched the nineteen-year-old Valentinian, who had been a mere figurehead, and his court to Trier, giving him jurisdiction over the western part of the empire. Theodosius also placed Valentinian under the unofficialregency of his trusted Frankish general (magister militum)Arbogast, who had defeated the Franks in 389.[79][78] In Italy he placed the civil administration under the prefect,Virius Nicomachus Flavianus. This allowed him to control the west remotely, while he ruled the remainder directly, from Italy eastwards, from Constantinople. In doing so, he inadvertently created a hierarchy, with the northwest as the junior partner in the empire.[128]
Valentinian attempted to exert his independence in the spring of 392, dismissing Arbogast. The latter defied Valentinian stating that only Theodosius could reverse his own appointment.[129] On 15 May 392, Valentinian II was found dead at Vienna (Vienne), Gaul, at the age of 21, either by suicide or as part of a plot by Arbogast.[78] Valentinian II was buried next to his half-brother and co-augustus Gratian in Mediolanum in late August or early September 392.[78] He was deified with theconsecratio:Divae Memoriae Valentinianus,lit. 'the Divine Memory of Valentinian'.[78]
The death of Gratian in 383, brought religious conflict to the fore again. The Altar of Victory was an important symbol to the Roman pagan aristocracy, who hoped that the young Valentinian would look on their cause more favourably. In the autumn of 384, the SenatorQ Aurelius Symmachus, then prefect of Rome (Latin:praefectus urbi) pleaded with Valentinian for its return to theCuria Julia, but Ambrose succeeded in firmly rejecting such a suggestion. While the bishop held considerable sway over the emperor, tensions began to emerge.[130][78]
According to Ambrose'sSermon Against Auxentius and his76th Epistle when the bishop was summoned to the court of Valentinian II and his motherJustina in 385, the Nicene Christians appeared en masse to support him, threatening the emperor's security and offering themselves to be martyred by the army.[84] In March 386, the court asked that the city's summer-time cathedral, theBasilica Nova, be made available for the Arian community in the army forEaster, but Ambrose refused.[84] OnPalm Sunday, thepraetorian prefect proposed that the Portian Basilica be used instead. Ambrose rejected the request but on 9 April was ordered to hand over the building and the Nicene Christians occupied the building.[84] OnHoly Wednesday, the army surrounded the Portian Basilica, but Ambrose held a service at the winter-timeBasilica Vetus, after which the Nicenes moved to rescue their co-religionists in the Portian Basilica, among themAugustine of Hippo and his mother, chantingPsalm 79.[84] Although Valentinian backed down under the popular pressure, but relations between court and church, and the Arians succeeded in getting a law passed recognising thecreed of Ariminum (359).[130]
On 23 January 386, Valentinian issued an edict of toleration regarding the Arian Christians, after receiving the Arian bishopAuxentius at court.[131][78] Magnus Maximus, who was a Nicene Christian, then wrote to Valentinian, attacking his favourable treatment of the Arians, and also contactedPope Siricius and Theodosius. The same year Theodosius recognized Magnus Maximus's nominee for consul,Flavius Euodius, and Magnus Maximus's official portrait is known to have been shown atAlexandria, in the part of the empire administered by Theodosius.[121]
On Valentinian's restoration, Theodosius' clemency emboldened the supporters of the altar of Victory to once more travel to Milan to request its return, but their pleas were rejected and Symmachus exiled from Rome[126] (though eventually forgiven and given a consulship).[132] With Theodosius now in power in Milan he frequently clashed with Bishop Ambrose, who had stood his ground when Maximus' forces arrived. Ambrose's increasing political power, together with his fanatical supporters forced the emperor to back down on several occasions, illustrating the ascendancy of the Catholic Nicene church.[133] The power of Ambrose reached its peak when he threatened Theodosius withexcommunication, following themassacre of Salonica in 390, until he publicly repented. This solidified the Church's position that man must serve God first, and the emperor second. Having established this precedent, Ambrose could now press the emperor into a major suppression of paganism, starting in February 391.[134]
On the death of Valentinian II in 392, Theodosius became the sole adult emperor, with his two sons Arcadius and Honorius as junior emperors, over the east and west respectively. Theodosius was also the last emperor to rule both halves of the Roman Empire. Arcadius and Honorius were Theodosius' two surviving sons by his first marriage toAelia Flaccilla, together with their sisterPulcheria[74] On Aelia's death in 386, Theodosius cemented his dynastic legitimacy by marrying Valentinian II's younger sister (and hence daughter of Valentinian I and Justina)Galla in 387.[q] By her, he had a son, Gratian (b. 388/389), who died in infancy in 394, and a daughter,Aelia Galla Placidia (b. 392/393). Another son, John (Latin:Ioannes), may have been born in 394. Galla, herself, died at the end of April 394 according to Zosimus.[74]
Theodosius' reign was immediately challenged. Arbogast, seeking to wield imperial power, was unable to assume the role of emperor himself because of his non-Roman background.[136] Instead, on 22 August at the behest of Arbogast, amagister scrinii andvir clarissimus,Eugenius (r. 392–394), was acclaimedaugustus at Lugdunum.[74] Like Maximus he sought Theodosius's recognition in vain, minting new coins bearing the image of Theodosius and his son Arcadius in both trier and Milan, and attempting to recruit Ambrose as negotiator.[136][137]
Any hopes that Theodosius would recognise Eugenius dissipated when, according toPolemius Silvius, Theodosius raised his second sonHonorius toaugustus on 23 January 393, the year of his third consulship[74] citing Eugenius's illegitimacy.[136] According to Socrates Scholasticus, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at theBattle of the Frigidus (theVipava river) on 6 September 394 and on 1 January 395, Honorius arrived in Mediolanum where a victory celebration was held.[74][137]
According to theConsularia Constantinopolitana, Theodosius died in Mediolanum on 17 January 395.[74][138] His funeral was held there on 25 February, and his body transferred to Constantinople, where according to theChronicon Paschale he was buried on 8 November 395 in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[74] He was deified as:Divus Theodosius,lit. 'the Divine Theodosius'.[74]
Eugenius made some limited concessions to theRoman religion.[136] On 8 November 392, all cult worship of the gods was forbidden by Theodosius.[74]
On the death of Theodosius I in 392, the empire became permanently divided between his sons. The two sons, who had been made junior emperors as children, by their father, were only 15 and 8 years old respectively, and thus figureheads under the control of guardians (Latin:parens). These, in turn, were often locked in struggles for power with each other. The most influential wasStilicho, himself aVandal and supreme commander (Latin:comes et magister utriusque militiae praesentalis,lit. 'count and master of all forces') of Theodosius' army. Stilicho had allied himself to the dynasty by marrying Theodosius' adopted niece,Serena, and claimed he had been appointedparens of the whole empire, but this role was rejected by the eastern court. He then further strengthened his dynastic position by marrying his daughters, firstMaria and on her deathThermantia, to the emperor Honorius. This period saw both an acceleration of the barbarisation of the western army and a massive settling of Roman lands by barbarian tribes. These were mainly Germanic tribes, withVisigoths andBurgundians in Gaul. Britain was abandoned and Italy itself became increasingly vulnerable to infiltration by barbarian forces, and progressively contracted to resemble more a government of Italy than an empire, while accommodation became more often the preferred foreign policy, rather than confrontation. By contrast the Constantinople court enjoyed a period of relative peace with its eastern Persian neighbours, although remaining vulnerable on its western front in Thrace and Macedonia to the forces ofAlaric I. Administrative reforms in the military, with the emergence of amagister utriusque militiae or MVM,[139] who were frequently German, often left the emperor as a puppet under their control. During this period the two empires were at worst openly hostile and at best uncooperative.[140]
In the summer of 401, Alaric entered north Italy, marching west on Mediolanum, until halted by Stilicho atPollentia in Piedmont at Easter 402. Although Alaric withdrew until 407, the threat was sufficient for Honorius to move his court from Mediolanum, further south to Ravenna, for security. The unintended consequence of strengthening the forces in the north east of Italy was a weakening of the Roman presence beyond the alps. The north of Italy was again overrun byRadagaisus and theOstrogoths from Pannonia in 405, though eventually repelled. In late 406, several waves of barbarians crossed the Rhine and swept throughBelgica and Gaul to the Pyrenees, capturing many important Roman strongholds, includingTrier. Simultaneously a series of revolts took place in Britain, raising usurpers, the last of which wasConstantine, who crossed into Gaul in the spring of 407, taking command of the Roman forces there and advancing as far as the alps. Meanwhile, Stilicho's attempts to appease Alaric and induce him to halt Constantine's advances was leading to both a deterioration in his relations with Honorius and his own popularity, culminating in a mutiny among the troops. Honorius then had Stilicho executed on 22 August 408.[141]
Stilicho's enemies at court were fiercely anti-German, resulting in the massacre of many of them in the Roman military. As a result, many barbarians defected to Alaric, who was now emboldened to once again invade Italy, this time with his brother-in-lawAtaulf the Ostragoth. Rather than invade northern Italy as before, this time they marched on Rome, arriving in the autumn of 408 and laying siege to it. In the ensuing panic and anti-German sentiment, Stilicho's wife Serena was murdered in the belief that she must be an accomplice of Alaric. After collecting a ransom from the city, Alaric withdrew north toEtruria in December. Honorius, in desperation, now decided to accept Constantine as co-emperor in 409, as Constantine III. With a breakdown in negotiations with Ravenna, Alaric marched south on Rome again. This time the Senate capitulated in late 409, agreeing to form a new government under Alaric, electingPriscus Attalus, thepraefectus urbi as emperor, in opposition to Honorius. In return Alaric was mademagister utriusque militiae and Ataulfcomes domesticorum equitum. When Alaric then advanced on Ravenna, Honorius was only dissuaded from fleeing to Constantinople by the arrival of reinforcements from the east. Attalus' reign was short lived being deposed by Alaric in the summer of 410. When negotiations with Ravenna failed yet again, Alaric attacked Rome for the third time, entering it on 24 August 410, and this time plundering it for three days, before moving south intoBruttium. On starting to return north, Alaric fell ill and died atConsentia (Consenza) in late 410, being succeeded by Ataulf who led to Visigoths back to Gaul. Meanwhile, relations between the two western emperors, which was uneasy at best, was deteriorating. Constantine established himself inArelate, (Arles, Provence) in the strategic province ofGallia Narbonensis, stretching from the alps in the east to thePyrenees in the south, and thus guarding the entrances to both Italy and Spain. Through this province ran theVia Domitia, connecting Rome with Spain.[142] He raised his son Constans toaugustus and in early 410, supposedly to assist Honorius against Alaric, entered Italy but withdrew when the latter had Constantine'smagister equitum executed on suspicion of treachery. The situation was further complicated by the incursion of barbarians into Spain in October 409, and the appearance of another usurper,Maximus (r. 409–411), there. Maximus' reign was short lived, his forces deserting him, while Honorius' forces, under thepatriciusConstantius, captured and executed Constantine in September 411.[143]
The removal of Constantine secured south-eastern Gaul, and hence the approaches to Italy for Honorius, but was followed by further usurpation ofJovinus (r. 411–413) inMogontiacum (Mainz),Germania Superior, in 412. Jovinus' support by a broad coalition of both Gallo-Romans and barbarians indicated the waning influence of the central Italian government in Gaul. Although Ataulf briefly allied himself with Jovinus, he then offered Honorius the defeat of the latter in exchange for a treaty, and captured and killed him in the autumn of 413. The agreement collapsed and the Visigoths occupied much of lowerAquitania andBurdigala (Bordeaux) in south west Gaul as well as the adjacent province of Gallia Narbonensis in the south east.[144]
Theodosius I set about establishing a stable dynasty in the east. When he raised his five year old eldest son, Arcadius, to the rank ofaugusta in 383 he also raised his first wife,Aelia Flaccilla asaugusta. In doing so he set a new precedent. Rather than the traditional portrayal of imperial women as goddesses he invested her in the same regalia as an emperor, indicating equal status. This tradition was then continued in the house of Theodosius. The empress died in 386, shortly after her infant daughterPulcheria, leaving him with his two young sons.[145][146]
In 387 the western emperorValentinian II, together with his motherJustina and sisters, includingGalla, were forced to flee to Thessalonica by the usurper Magnus Maximus, seeking Theodosius' help. Traveling to Thessalonica to meet them, the widowed Theodosius decided to marry Galla.[r][147] This move consolidated his dynastic legitimacy by marriage into the house of Valentinian. In 388 Theodosius led his army into the western empire to defeat Magnus Maximus, and Justina and her other daughters returned to Italy, leaving Galla, now pregnant, in Thessalonica, where her daughter, Galla Placidia, was born.[148][149][150]
Galla Placidia (c. 388–450) was thus both Valentinian and Theodosian, being the daughter of Theodosius I and Galla, and hence granddaughter of Valentinian I, as well as half sister to the child emperors Honorius and Arcadius.[151] Galla and her daughter travelled to Constantinople, where her stepson, Arcadius, rejected her, forcing Theodosius' return from Italy in 391.[152]
According toSynesius's61st Epistle, writtenc. 402, Galla and her daughter were given a palace in Constantinople that had previously been part of the property ofAblabius, apraetorian prefect of the East under Constantine I.[153] About a year after his return, Theodosius arranged for his younger son, Honorius, then eight, to be crowned emperor. In the west, Valentinian II had died in the summer of 392 and the usurper Flavius Eugenius was proclaimed in August, and it was necessary to restore dynastic rule. Honorius' coronation took place on 23 January 393, an occasion recorded in detail by Claudian, in which all three of the Emperor's children were honoured. Galla Placidia was entitled "Most noble girl" (Latin:nobilissima puella),[s] with the honorific prefix:domina nostra,lit. 'our lady', though this may have occurred later.[154] Placidia also received an advanced education in secular and religious matters.[153][155][156]
Less than a year later, her mother died in childbirth in 394. Subsequently, she was raised by her father's nieceSerena and her husbandStilicho, with their three children (Maria, Thermantia and Eucherius). Theodosius had adopted Serena, on the death of her father, Honorius, bringing her to Constantinople from the family estates in Spain.[12] Theodosius then took his forces west to attack Eugenius, defeating him on 6 September. Shortly after, Theodosius became ill and sent for his children. Serena then travelled to Milan with Honorius, Placidia and her nurse Elpidia to join him. He proclaimed Honorius emperor and promoted Stilicho tomagister militum, but by 17 January 395 he had died, leaving his children orphans, Placidia being seen years old. Stilicho then claimed he had been appointedparens principium to the child emperors.[157] After the funeral, Serena and the children accompanied his body to Constantinople, where he was interred at the Church of the Holy Apostles in November.[158][159] Following Theodosius' death, Stilicho strengthened his dynastic position by marrying his two daughters to Honorius in succession and betrothing his sonEucherius to Placidia, while they were all still children, while his wife Serena acted as ade facto Empress as the informal regent for Honorius.[12] Although Placidia spent much of her early years in Milan, the continuing invasions of Visigoths led to the court moving to a more secure position further south at Ravenna in 402, but with frequent visits to Rome, where Stilicho and Serena also maintained a house.[12][154][160]
Meanwhile, Stilicho's reputation was waning and his relationship with Honorius deteriorating, leading to Honorius ordering his execution in Ravenna in 408, together with Eucherius and Serena, who were in Rome with Placidia. According to Zosimus, thenobilissima puella Galla Placidia approved theRoman Senate's decision to execute Serena.[153] All this happened against a background of Visigothic advances, laying siege to Rome in both 408 and 409,[161] and finallysacking Rome in 410. In either 409 or 410, the teenage Galla Placidia was captured by the Visigoths and was taken through southern Italy, where Alaric died and was succeeded by Athaulf.[162] Placidia, who was effectively a hostage, then became a bargaining item in the negotiations between the Visigoths and the Romans over a three-year period.[163][164] Placidia and her captors eventually returned to southern Gaul in the spring of 412.[153][165][166]
During the protracted negotiations between the Roman court and the Visigoths, Placidia was married to Athaulf.[157] According toOrosius,Olympiodorus of Thebes,Philostorgius,Prosper of Aquitaine, theChronica Gallica of 452,Hydatius,Marcellinus Comes, andJordanes, they were married at Narbo (Narbonne) in January 414, where Athaulf had established his court on the Via Domitia in Gallia Narbonensis.[167] They had a son, that she called Theodosius.[74][157][164] Honorius responded with a naval blockade of Narbo under the direction of Constantius. Although Athaulf again elected Attalus as a rival emperor, but the new regime soon collapsed, Attalus was captured and the Visigoths retreated south toColonia Faventia (Barcelona) by the end of the year. Constantius renewed his attack on them there, and in the summer of 415, Athaulf was murdered and succeeded bySigeric, while the infant Theodosius died. Within seven days, Sigeric himself was killed and succeeded byWallia who, desperate for food for his people, bartered Placidia for supplies and a treaty in summer 416. The treaty recruited the Visigoths against other barbarian peoples that were rapidly occupying Hispania. They were so efficient at this, that Honorius decided to settle them in southern Gaul (lowerAquitania and parts ofNovempopulana and Narbonensis, excluding the seaboard) in 418. By this stage, the western empire was reduced to Italy and Africa but with only a tenuous hold on western Illyricum, Gallia and Hispania.[168][153]
Placidia was returned to Ravenna and, against her will, was married to the Constantius on 1 January 417 according toOlympiodorus of Thebes.[169][74][153] Their first child wasJusta Grata Honoria (Honoria),[153] and a little more than a year laterValentinian on 4 July 419.[12][170][171] In February 421, Honorius, who lacked an heir himself, reluctantly elevated Constantiusaugustus as Constantius III (r. 421–421), Galla Placidia asaugusta by her husband and Honorius and Valentinian asnobilisimus, indicating he was destined for succession.[153] These titles were not recognised by the eastern court[157] and Constantius died within seven months in September 421.[172][170]
Relations between Placidia and Honorius deteriorated, with their respective supporters clashing in the streets of Ravenna, leading to her moving her family to Constantinople in 422.[173][170][157] She may have been banished by Honorius, with whom her relations were previously close, because according to Olympiodorus, Philostorgius, Prosper, and theChronica Gallica of 452, gossip about the nature of their relationship that arose after Constantius's death caused them to quarrel.[153] Galla Placidia involved herself in political and religious affairs, for instance supporting a candidate to the disputed see of Rome.[157]
Honorius died in 423, leaving Galla Placidia as the only ruler in the west, though not recognised in the east. At the eastern court, Theodosius I's eldest son Arcadius (r. 383–408) had died in 408, and been succeeded by his son Theodosius II (r. 402–450), also a child emperor, but who was now 22, and who considered himself the sole ruler of the empire.[173][157]
However, the vacuum was rapidly filled by the appearance of a usurper in Rome, theprimicerius notariorumJoannes (r. 423–425), who declared himself asaugustus in the west.[173] Dynastic considerations then forced the eastern court to retrospectively recognise Constantius, Placidia and their six-year-old son, and to restore the Valentinianic dynasty in the west, in early 424. Theodosius elevated Valentinian tocaesar on 23 October 424.[173] The combined forces of Placidia and Theodosius invaded Italy in 425, capturing and executing Joannes. Valentinian was then proclaimedaugusta on his first anniversary, as Valentinian III (r. 425–455) at Rome on 23 October 425, with Placidia asregent. Theodosius further strengthened dynastic relations across the empire by betrothing his three-year-old daughterLicinia Eudoxia to Valentinian.[174] By this time the western sphere of influence was reduced to Italy and the economically strategic provinces of North Africa (see map inHeather (2000, p. 3)).[175] With a six year old titular emperor, the real power lay with, his mother, and the three major military commanders, though these were locked in struggles against each other, from whichFlavius Aetius emerged as the sole survivor by 433, appointing himselfpatricius. These struggles weakened central control of the empire, with frequent incursions of a number of neighbouring peoples.[176] However, Aetius, having emerged as the sole military commander was able to reverse some of these losses in the late 430s, albeit temporarily.[177] The fall ofCarthago (Carthage) to the Vandals in 439 and subsequent invasion ofSicilia, rapidly followed by Hunnic invasions across the Danube in 441 precipitated another crisis.[178] Much of the 440s was spent in a struggle to maintain control in Hispania and Gallia, while the progressive loss of territories and hence tax base, continued to weaken the central government in Ravenna.[179]
Valentinian's older sister,Honoria, was given the title ofaugusta in 426, but provoked a major scandal when it was alleged she had conceived a child through an affair with Eugenius, her estate manager. The latter was promptly executed and Honoria incarcerated then betrothed to a Senator. This prompted her to call on Attila the Hunnic leader for assistance, offering herself and half of the western empire. Attila needed little encouragement to turn his attention westward from his Balkan stronghold.[180] Following a diplomatic offensive based on this, Attila marched westwards along the Danube in early 451, crossing the Rhine atMogontiacum (Mainz) and ravagingBelgica and northern Gallia as far south asCenabum (Orleans). Aetius confronted him near what is nowChâlons-en-Champagne at theBattle of Campus Mauriacus in late June or early July. Aetius prevailed, forcing Attila to fall back to Pannonia. The following year, Attila swept acrossVenetia and northern Italy, takingAquileia,Patavium (Padua),Mantua,Verona andBrixia (Brescia).Aquileia was completely sacked, and Aetius was able to do little more than harry the invaders, until the eastern empire launched an offensive on Attila's flank, forcing him to once more withdraw, dying the following year (453). Attila's death then led to a disintegration of theHunnic empire. One consequence of the elimination of the Hunnic threat was that Valentinian, now 34, had no further use for Aetius and assassinated him on or about 21 September 454, only to be killed himself by Aetius' bodyguards a few months later on 16 March 455. Valentinian having no male heirs, the dynasty, and dynastic rule in the west, ended.[181][172]
Although Marcellinus Comes and Olympiodorus imply that Placidia had been stripped of her title by Honorius, she most likely retained her rank while resident at the eastern court.[153] Placidia's influence gradually waned by the 430s as her son reached adulthood, her political failures and the rise of thepatriciusFlavius Aetius. She was active in religious patronage, building churches in Jerusalem, Ravenna and Rome. According to Agnellus and theChronica Gallica of 452, Galla Placidia died on 25 November 450 and was buried in the S. Nazariusmonasterium inRavenna.[157][74][153]
Valentinian III, having no male heirs, there was no incentive for the Eastern empire to intervene on his death. He did, however have two daughters,Eudocia (439–466/474) andPlacidia (439–484), who represented the fifth and last generation to ascend the throne, though only briefly. On Valentinian's death, power was seized by the senatorPetronius Maximus (r. 455–455), who had colluded with Valentinian in Aetius' death, the following day. As was customary, he immediately forced Valentinian's widowLicinia Eudoxia, who was the daughter of Theodosius II, to marry him in order to establish a dynastic legitimacy. This was unsuccessful, in that this succession was not recognised in the east. He furthered this ambition by appointing his sonPalladius ascaesar and then marrying him to Eudocia. Around this time, her sister, Placidia, was married toOlybrius, a Roman senator, of the distinguishedAniciagens.[182][183] However Petronius Maximus' reign was short lived. The Empress Licinia Eudoxia sought revenge, summoning theVandal kingGaiseric from Africa to her aid. Gaiseric then proceeded tosack Rome, kill Petronius (22 May 455) and carry off the Empress and her two daughters to Cartago. It is assumed that Palladius also died at this time. He then married Eudocia to his sonHuneric.[182] Petronius's death is considered to mark the final chapter of the Valentinianic dynasty. He and his successors, being referred to as the "shadow" emperors of the last years of the western empire, their reigns being so short, and because real power lay with the military commanders.[184][185]
On Petronius' death, hismagister militum praesentalis (Master of Soldiers in the Presence)Avitus (r. 455–456), then in Gallia seeking the loyalty of the Visgoths, was proclaimedaugustus in Arles on or about 10 July, traveling to Rome in September. His attempts to improve Roman control in Gallia, by giving more influence to Gallo-Romans was not popular and by 456 was faced by open revolt and was deposed by hismagister militum,Ricimer at the Battle of Placentia (Piacenza) in October.[186] After a brief interregnum,Majorian (r. 456–461), thecomes domesticorum (Count of the Domestics) was acclaimed in December in Ravenna, this time with eastern acquiescence. Majorian had some success in stabilising the western empire but in turn was also deposed by Ricimer in 461, installingSeverus III (r. 461–465) in his stead. By the time of Severus's death, Ricimer was working closely with the east, this time installingAnthemius (r. 467–472), who had marriedMarcia Euphemia, daughter ofMarcian (r. 450–457), the eastern emperor. Anthemius was also related to Ricimer, through his daughter Alypia who had married the latter. At this time, the empire was becoming increasingly irrelevant, existing more in name than in reality, while groups such as the Franks were becoming increasingly important.[187] Meanwhile, Marcian had unsuccessfully tried to get Gaiseric to let the imperial family come to Constantinople, and contemplated military intervention in 456. Geiseric however did negotiate their return with Marcian's successor,Leo I (r. 457–474), Olybrius having travelled to Cartago. Eudocia, remained with her husband and son,Hilderic a later Vandal king, in Africa, but Licinia and Placidia joined the eastern court.[182]
In 472, relations between Ricimer, now the effective power in the empire, and Anthemius had deteriorated to the extent that Ricimer declared Olybrius (r. 472), who had been considered as emperor in the past,augustus in April. This placed the second of Valentinian III's daughters on the throne. Anthemius was finally deposed and killed on 11 July. Ricimer died shortly after this on 18 August, followed by Olybrius on 2 November, after only a few months as emperor. This ended the era of Valentinian dynasts.[188][189] But through Placidia, Valentinian's descendants continued to be a part of the Roman nobility in Constantinople until the end of the 6th century.[183]
With the death ofOlybrius, a number of short-lived emperors oversaw the collapse of the empire. Olybrius' death was followed by a further interregnum untilGlycerius (r. 473–474), thecomes domesticorum, was proclaimed on 3 March 474. This was not accepted by the eastern court,Leo I dispatchingJulius Nepos (r. 474–475) to depose him, which he did in June, assuming power himself. His reign was equally brief, facing a rebellion by his ownmagister militum,Orestes, forcing Nepos to flee from Ravenna toDalmatia in August 475, from where he attempted to rule inSalona. Meanwhile, Orestes installed his own sonRomulus Augustulus[t] (r. 475–476), then 15, in Ravenna in October. By this time the effective empire had shrunk further considerably, and Orestes and Romulus Augustus faced a major threat fromOdoacer, a barbarian soldier and leader of thefoederati in Italy. Odoacer advanced on Ravenna, killing Orestes at Placentia in August 476. The army then proclaimed Odoacerrex Italiae (King of Italy) who proceeded to Ravenna deposing Romulus Augustulus on 4 September. This effectively ended imperial rule in the west. The Senate symbolically sent the imperial regalia to the eastern court in recognition of this, and it was accepted, the eastern Emperor,Zeno treating Odoacer as the titular ruler of Italy, under the nominal reign of Nepos, until the latter's death in 480. With Nepos’ death, Odoacer annexed Dalmatia and Zeno became the sole Roman Emperor, of what was now a solely Eastern empire, later known by name Byzantine Empire, after the original settlement of Byzantium on which Constantinople was based. The western empire now being a series ofrump European kingdoms.[191][192][193]
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