Ukrainian State Українська Держава (Ukrainian) | |||||||||
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| 1918 | |||||||||
| Motto: Слава Україні! Гетьманові слава! ("Glory to Ukraine! Glory to the Hetman!") | |||||||||
| Anthem: Ще не вмерла України ("Ukraine has not yet perished") | |||||||||
 Show political map | |||||||||
| Status | Client state of theGerman Empire | ||||||||
| Capital | Kyiv 50°27′00″N30°31′00″E / 50.45°N 30.5167°E /50.45; 30.5167 | ||||||||
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| Religion |
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| Demonym | Ukrainian | ||||||||
| Government | Provisionalsemi-constitutional monarchy under anauthoritarian conservativemilitary dictatorship | ||||||||
| Hetman | |||||||||
• 1918 | Pavlo Skoropadsky | ||||||||
| Otaman | |||||||||
• April–May | Mykola Vasylenko | ||||||||
• May–November | Fedir Lyzohub | ||||||||
• November–December | Serhii Herbel | ||||||||
| Legislature |
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| Historical era | World War I | ||||||||
| 29 April 1918 | |||||||||
| 14 December 1918 | |||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||
TheUkrainian State (Ukrainian:Українська Держава)[b] was the official name ofUkraine used between 29 April and 14 December 1918,[c] following the deposition of theCentral Rada ofUkrainian People's Republic. For the entirety of its history, the state was ruled autocratically byPavlo Skoropadsky, theHetman of all Ukraine, who took a sharp departure from the earlierdemocratic andsocialist-leaning policies of theCentral Rada, instead aligning his government with the interests of large landowners and industrialists.
Established against the backdrop of theCentral Powers becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the Ukrainian government's inability to fulfil its obligations to provide large quantities of food and raw goods as per theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Ukrainian State was deeply politically, economically and militarily dependent upon the Central Powers, particularlyGermany andAustria-Hungary, who pledged to support Skoropadsky's rule in return for greater control over the state. Despite this dependency, the Ukrainian State pursued a largely independent internal policy and managed to establish a relatively well-functioning bureaucracy, in contrast to the chaos of the previous government.
Failure to complete land reform, a perceived support for often violent German and Austrian methods to extract grain from the countryside and a controversial ethnic policy (which was seen as tooRussophilic) led to the Ukrainian population growing dissatisfied by the government of the Ukrainian State. Meanwhile, Skoropadsky's main backers in the form of Germany and Austria had beendefeated by theTriple Entente, leaving the Ukrainian State at the mercy of neighbouring countries, particularly theRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Tensions finally culminated in theAnti-Hetman Uprising, during which theDirectorate toppled the Ukrainian State and re-established the Ukrainian People's Republic.
On 29 December [O.S. 16 December] 1917, theBolshevik governmentPetrograd issued anultimatum to theCentral Rada inKyiv. The ultimatum, while recognising the autonomy of theUkrainian People's Republic (often referred to as the UPR) as per the earlierThird Universal, also demanded the Rada agree to the following within 48 hours:
The Rada refused to comply with the ultimatum.[1]
In response, the Bolshevik diplomats met with Soviet delegates to theThird Congress of Soviets fromKharkiv andKryvyi Rih in Kharkiv (already controlled by Bolshevik forces) and proclaimed the establishment of theUkrainian People's Republic of Soviets, effectively creating a rival government to the Rada in Kyiv. On 30 December [O.S. 17 December] 1917, the Soviet Ukrainian government officially declared war upon the Rada, marking the formal beginning of theUkrainian–Soviet War.[2]
The war proceeded poorly for the UPR. On 29 December [O.S. 16 December] 1917, theArsenal Uprising began, which forced a large portion of the 16,000 strong Ukrainian garrison in Kyiv to be used for suppressing it. Soviet troops under the command of GeneralMuravyov faced unexpected resistance by the much inferior Ukrainian forces atKruty, but nevertheless advanced quickly. TheBattle of Kyiv began on 23 January [O.S. 5 February] 1918 and was concluded by the Bolshevik capture of the city three days later.[3]
Against the backdrop of complete military defeat, the Central Rada committed to signing theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk on 2 March [O.S. 18 February] 1918, in which theCentral Powers recognised the independence of Ukraine and pledged to help liberate its territories from Bolshevik troops. German forces thenrecaptured much of the Ukrainian territory under the control of the Bolsheviks, including Kyiv itself. The chaos of the previous months had, however, left the Rada in a precarious situation, as it was unable to re-establish control over large parts of the country (primarily in the vast rural areas).
Austria-Hungary and especially theGerman Empire had expected huge shipments of grain, other foodstuffs and raw industrial materials from Ukraine to alleviate the shortages caused by thewartime blockade, but the Ukrainian government was unable to extract or transport these items. This led to increased friction between the Rada and the Central Powers, as it was thought that the Ukrainian government was not fulfilling its obligations.[4]
Tensions reached a new high on 6 April 1918, when Field MarshalHermann von Eichhorn, the commander of the GermanArmy Group Kiev, issued his so-called "cultivation order", in which he accused the Ukrainian peasants of not sowing their fields and instructed that Germans must ensure that the fields were sowed, even at the threat of military intervention. This was very unpopular with the local population and greatly angered the Rada, which issued a note of protest on 13 April. Meanwhile, on 18 April, the German ambassador in Kyiv,Alfons von Mumm, informedBerlin that "collaboration with present government, considering its tendencies, is impossible", having earlier recommended that the Rada should be overthrown and a new government put in place.[5]
In mid-April, Mumm stablished contact with a former general of theRussian Imperial Army of Ukrainian origin,Pavlo Skoropadsky. He was deemed to be a suitable candidate for leading a new government in Ukraine.[6] On 26 April, Skoropadsky met with GeneralWilhelm Groener, the commander of the GermanI Corps, to discuss specific conditions under which his rule would be supported.[7] These included:
German relations with the Rada broke down completely after the so-called Dobryi Affair, in which the wealthy bankerAbraham Dobryi [uk], director of the Kyiv section of theRussian Bank for Foreign Trade was abducted on the 24 April 1918. As Dobryi was member of a special commission of the Ukrainian Ministry of Finance which negotiated financial operations with the Central Powers, chiefly Germany, and was thus well-known to the Germans, his sudden and unexplained disappearance resulted in Germany's complete loss of trust in the Ukrainian government.[8] Field Marshal Eichhorn responded to the incident by issuing a decree which granted the German military courts jurisdiction over all criminal offences on 25 April, leaving only the civil cases to the Ukrainian judiciary.[9] This prompted the premierVsevolod Holubovych to state in the Rada:[10]
Who is this Mr. Dobryi? Is he a subject of the German State? No, he is not a far relative nor a godparent, he is a stranger. And just because that stranger who legally has no connections with Germany and gave no halters to issue a decree of such colossal weight was abducted, the decree was issued.
Worse yet for the Rada, the subsequent German investigation connected the abduction to a secret organisation by the name of Committee for Ukraine's Salvation (Ukrainian:Комітет порятунку України), headed by several high-ranking members of the Ukrainian government, chieflyMykhailo Tkachenko [uk], the minister of the interior.[11] Already on 26 April, the First Ukrainian Division, also known as theBluecoat division [uk] (a unit formed from Ukrainianprisoners of war in Germany and Austria-Hungary, named so after their blue uniforms.)[12] and units of the artillery regiments were disarmed by the Germans. On 28 April, an armed German detachment raided the Rada, loudly shouting at those present and arresting two officials in connection with the Dobryi Affair, while Tkachenko himself evaded capture due to being absent that day. The final meeting of the Rada then took place on 29 April, during which the constitution of the People's Republic of Ukraine was approved.[6]
Also on 29 April, a congress of the League of Landowners consisting of some 6,500 delegates from all eight governorates of Ukraine took place in the building of the Kyiv circus.[13] The league consisted primarily of wealthy andRussified moderate and large landholders. After receiving information about the situation at the Congress from his couriers, Pavlo Skoropadsky later arrived in his car to the event where he was elected theHetman of all Ukraine. After Skoropadsky received a standing ovation, the crowd moved toSt. Sophia's Square, where Skoropadsky was served amoleben byNykodym, theVicar of Kyiv and Galicia (as MetropolitanVladimir was executed by Bolsheviks). That night, the supporters of the Hetman took over the government building of military and internal affairs as well as theState Bank. The following day, the elite and most loyal formation of theCentral Council, theSich Riflemen, was disarmed.[14]
Skoropadsky issued his manifesto (Ukrainian:грамота,romanized: hramota) "To the All-Ukrainian Nation" and the Law of the Provisional State System.[15] Desiring stability, the Austro-Hungarian and German forces welcomed the coup; Skoropadsky cooperated with them, making him unpopular among many Ukrainian peasants. The new state retained thetryzub (coat of arms) and thenational flag but reversed the design to light blue over yellow.
Internal opposition was provoked by the requisitioning of food stocks and restoration of land to the wealthy landowners. Opponents of the Skoropadsky regime committed acts ofarson andsabotage and, in July 1918, assassinated Hermann von Eichhorn, the commander of German troops in Ukraine. In August 1918, the anti-Skoropadsky coalition succeeded in forcing him to re-form the Sich Riflemen. By then it was becoming obvious that the Central Powers had lost the war and that Skoropadsky could no longer rely on their support. He thus looked for support from conservative Russian elements in society and proposed joining a federation withAnton Denikin and theWhite movement. This further eroded his standing among Ukrainians.[16]
Almost the entire commanding staff of the Ukrainian State armed forces consisted of officers of the formerImperial Russian Army.[17] Most officers were not supportive of the Ukrainian cause and viewed it as a way to make it through tough times.[17] At the same time, wide masses of the population did not have a developed sense of nationalism and mainly chose to follow socialist and communist principles.[17]
Following thearmistice ending World War I, Ukrainian socialists formed the Directorate of Ukraine (the "Directory"), whose forces were mainly composed of the Sich Riflemen and "Greycoats".[18] Although German and Austrian troops had not yet withdrawn from Ukraine, they had no further interest in fighting. Most of Skoropadsky's own forces changed sides and joined the Directory.[17]
On 16 November 1918, starting inBila Tserkva, fighting broke out in the Hetmanate. Skoropadsky had to turn to the thousands of RussianWhite Guard officers who had escaped to Ukraine with the intention of joining Denikin'sVolunteer Army in the region of theDon river further east. The officers were assembled into a "Special Corps" but proved unable to resist the Directory's forces led bySymon Petliura. Skoropadsky abdicated his position as Hetman on 14 December, as theUkrainian People's Army took Kyiv. He fled to Switzerland and then Germany under disguise.[19]
The country lay inEastern Europe along the middle and lower sections of theDnieper on the coast of theBlack Sea and theSea of Azov. The Ukrainian State covered most of the territory of modern-day Ukraine, with the exception of most ofWest Ukraine,Budjak andCrimea. Its territory, however, extended into today'sRussia,Belarus,Moldova andPoland.[20]
To its northeast Ukraine established a preliminary demarcation line with theRussian SFSR, on the east it had a border with theDon Republic, to its south were the Black and Azov Seas, while the Crimean peninsula—theCrimean Regional Government—came under the control ofSulkevych. To the southwest along theDniester lay a border with theKingdom of Romania, to the west Ukraine bordered theGerman Empire andAustria-Hungary. To the north were the German-occupied territories ofOber Ost and theBelarusian People's Republic.[citation needed]
Prior to the formation of the Ukrainian State, theUkrainian People's Republic (UPR) had passed on 6 March 1918 the law on the division of Ukraine intozemlias [uk], which was to replace the earlierImperial Russian system of administration. Instead of the territory of the UPR being divided into severalgovernorates and those being divided intouezds, the state was to be divided into 32zemlias (Ukrainian:земля), with lower level subdivisions beingvolosts (Ukrainian:волость) andhromadas (Ukrainian:громада).[21]
However, in hisManifesto to the Ukrainian People [uk], Skoropadsky declared that all prior laws and decrees of the Rada to be null, thus restoring the basic principle of the earlier division of the state.[22]
According to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Ukraine had gained ownership of the territory of the formerPinsk,Mozyr andRechitsa uezds. While the UPR had included these into theVolhynia Governorate andKholm Governorate, they instead formed a separate administrative subdivision in the Ukrainian State, the Polisiaokruha (Ukrainian:округа), centred inMazyr.[23]
According to the"Laws on the Provisional State System of Ukraine", the leading position of the country was occupied by theChristianOrthodox faith. At the same time, citizens of Ukraine who belonged to other denominations had the right to profess their religion andrites.[24]
TheRussian Orthodox Church, and later theUkrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, ruled inCentral andEastern Ukraine. However, inWestern Ukraine there was friction between Orthodox,Greek Catholics,Roman Catholics andJews. In the conflicts, the Ministry of Confessions of the Ukrainian State and the Council of Ministers morally and materially supported the Orthodox clergy.[citation needed]
On 25 June, the government allocated 3 millionrubles to help priests who moved toVolhynia,Kholmshchyna,Grodno,Podolia, andPolesia, which were annexed to the Ukrainian State. On 2 July, 120,000 roubles were allocated for the maintenance of the Orthodox clergy in the lands of Kholmshchyna,Podlachia and Polesia.[25]
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