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| Ubykh | |
|---|---|
| tuex̂ıbze | |
| Pronunciation | /tʷɜxɨbzɜ/ |
| Native to | Circassia |
| Region | Ubykhia (Sochi) |
| Ethnicity | Ubykh |
| Extinct | 7 October 1992, with the death ofTevfik Esenç |
Northwest Caucasian
| |
| Unwritten, but provisional orthographies have been developed | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | uby |
| Glottolog | ubyk1235 |
 Ubykh (extinct) | |
 Ubykh is classified as Extinct according to theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger [1] | |
| This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. | |
Ubykh[a] is an extinctNorthwest Caucasian language once spoken by theUbykh people, an ethnic group ofCircassian nation who originally inhabited the eastern coast of theBlack Sea before being deporteden masse to theOttoman Empire during theCircassian genocide.[2]
The Ubykh language isergative andpolysynthetic, with a high degree ofagglutination, withpolypersonal verbal agreement and a very large number of distinctconsonants but only twophonemically distinctvowels. With around eighty consonants, it has one of the largest inventories of consonants in the world,[3] and the largest number for any language withoutclicks.
The name Ubykh is derived fromУбых (/wɨbɨx/), fromУбыхыбзэ, its name in theAdyghe language. It is known inlinguistic literature by many names: variants of Ubykh, such asUbikh,Oubykh (French); and itsGermanised variantPäkhy (from Ubykh/tʷɜχɨ/).
Ubykh is distinguished by the following features, some of which are shared with other Northwest Caucasian languages:
Ubykh has 84 phonemic consonants, a record high amongst languages withoutclick consonants, but only 3 phonemic vowels.[5] Four of these consonants are found only in loanwords andonomatopoeiae. There are nine basic places of articulation for the consonants and extensive use of secondary articulation, such that Ubykh has 20 differentuvular phonemes. Ubykh distinguishes three types ofpostalveolar consonants: apical, laminal, and laminal closed. Regarding the vowels, since there are only three phonemic vowels, there is a great deal of allophony.
Writing systems for the Ubykh language have been proposed,[5] but there has never been a standard written form. However, Fenwick gives a guide for their "practical Ubykh orthography", intended to be typeable on a Turkish computer keyboard, which is shown below:[6]
| IPA | Orthography | IPA | Orthography | IPA | Orthography | IPA | Orthography |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [ɐ] | a | [z] | z | [tʃʼ] | ç' | [qʼ] | q' |
| [ɜ] | e | [s] | s | [ʒ] | j | [ʁ] | ğ |
| [ɨ] | ı | [r] | r | [ʃ] | ş | [χ] | x |
| [b] | b | [n] | n | [ʒʷ] | ju | [qʲ] | qi |
| [p] | p | [l] | l | [ʃʷ] | şu | [qʲʼ] | q'i |
| [pʼ] | p' | [ɬ] | lh | [ɖʐ] | cr | [ʁʲ] | ği |
| [v] | v | [ɬʼ] | l'h | [ʈʂ] | çr | [χʲ] | xi |
| [f] | f | [dʷ] | du | [ʈʂʼ] | ç'r | [qʷ] | qu |
| [w] | w | [tʷ] | tu | [j] | y | [qʷʼ] | q'u |
| [m] | m | [tʷʼ] | t'u | [ɡ] | g | [ʁʷ] | ğu |
| [bˤ] | bh | [dʑ] | ci | [k] | k | [χʷ] | xu |
| [pˤ] | ph | [tɕ] | çi | [kʼ] | k' | [qˤ] | qh |
| [pˤʼ] | p'h | [tɕʼ] | ç'i | [ɣ] | ĝ | [qˤʼ] | q'h |
| [vˤ] | vh | [ʑ] | ji | [x] | x̂ | [ʁˤ] | ğh |
| [wˤ] | wh | [ɕ] | şi | [ɡʲ] | gi | [χˤ] | xh |
| [mˤ] | mh | [dʑʷ] | cü | [kʲ] | ki | [qʷˤ] | qö |
| [d] | d | [tɕʷ] | çü | [kʲʼ] | k'i | [qʷˤʼ] | q'ö |
| [t] | t | [tɕʷʼ] | ç'ü | [ɡʷ] | gu | [ʁʷˤ] | ğö |
| [tʼ] | t' | [ʑʷ] | jü | [kʷ] | ku | [χʷˤ] | xö |
| [dz] | dz | [ɕʷ] | şü | [kʷʼ] | k'u | [h] | h |
| [ts] | ts | [dʒ] | c | [xʷ] | x̂u | [ʐ] | jr |
| [tsʼ] | ts' | [tʃ] | ç | [q] | q | [ʂ] | şr |
Ubykh is agglutinative and polysynthetic:/ʃɨkʲʼɐjɨfɜnɜmɨt/ ('we will not be able to go back'),/ɐwqʼɜqʼɜjtʼbɜ/ ('if you had said it'). It is often extremely concise in its word forms.
The boundaries between nouns and verbs is somewhat blurred. Any noun can be used as the root of a stative verb (/mɨzɨ/ 'child',/sɨmɨzɨjtʼ/ 'I was a child'), and many verb roots can become nouns simply by the use of noun affixes (/qʼɜ/ 'to say',/sɨqʼɜ/ 'what I say').[7][8]
The noun system in Ubykh is quite simple. It has three main noun cases (the oblique-ergative case may be two homophonous cases with differing function, thus presenting four cases in total):
There are X other cases that exist in Ubykh too:
Nouns do not distinguishgrammatical gender. Thedefinite article is/ɐ/ (e.g./ɐtɨt/ 'the man'). There is noindefinite article directly equivalent to the Englisha oran, but/zɜ/-(root)-/ɡʷɜrɜ/ (literally 'one'-(root)-'certain') translates Frenchun : e.g./zɜnɜjnʃʷɡʷɜrɜ/ ('a certain young man').
Number is only marked on the noun in the ergative case, with -/nɜ/. The number marking of the absolutive argument is either bysuppletive verb roots (e.g./ɐkʷɨnblɜs/ 'he is in the car' vs./ɐkʷɨnblɜʒʷɜ/ 'they are in the car') or by verb suffixes:/ɐkʲʼɜn/ ('he goes'),/ɐkʲʼɐn/ ('they go'). Thesecond personplural prefix/ɕʷ/- triggers this plural suffix regardless of whether that prefix represents the ergative, the absolutive, or anoblique argument:
Note that, in this last sentence, the plurality ofit (/ɐ/-) is obscured; the meaning can be either 'You all giveit to me' or 'You all givethem to me'.
Adjectives, in most cases, are simply suffixed to the noun:/tʃɨbʒɨjɜ/ ('pepper') with/pɬɨ/ ('red') becomes/tʃɨbʒɨjɜpɬɨ/ ('red pepper'). Adjectives do notdecline.
Postpositions are rare; most locativesemantic functions, as well as some non-local ones, are provided withpreverbal elements:/ɐsχʲɜwtxqʼɜ/ ('you wrote it for me'). However, there are a few postpositions:/sɨʁʷɜsɨɡʲɐtɕʼ/ ('like me'),/ɐχʲɨlɐq/ ('near the prince').
Free pronouns in all North-West Caucasian languages lack an ergative-absolutive distinction.[5]
| First person | Second person | Third person | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Standard | /s(ɨ)ʁʷɜ/ | /(w(ɨ))ʁʷɜ/(joc./χɜʁʷɜ/) | /ɐʁʷɜ/ |
| AB | /(s)χɜ/ | |||
| Plural | Standard | /ʃɨʁʷɜɬɜ/ | /ɕʷɨʁʷɜɬɜ/ | /ɐʁʷɜɬɜ/ |
| Tevfik Esenç | /ʃɜɬɜ/ | /ɕʷɜɬɜ/ | ||
| Osman Güngür | /ʃɨʁʷɜ/ | /ɕʷɨʁʷɜ/ |
| First person | Second person | Third person | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Normal | Jocular | |||
| Singular | /sɨ/- | /wɨ/- | /χɜ/- | /ʁɜ/- |
| Plural | /ʃɨ/- | /ɕʷɨ/- | /ɐʁɜ/- | |
Possessed nouns have their plurality marked with the affix/-ɜw-/.
Apast–present–future distinction of verbtense exists (the suffixes -/qʼɜ/ and -/ɜwt/ represent past and future) and animperfective aspect suffix is also found (-/jtʼ/, which can combine with tense suffixes). Dynamic and stative verbs are contrasted, as inArabic, and verbs have severalnominal forms. Morphologicalcausatives are not uncommon. The conjunctions/ɡʲɨ/ ('and') and/ɡʲɨlɜ/ ('but') are usually given with verb suffixes, but there is also a free particle corresponding to each:
Pronominalbenefactives are also part of the verbal complex, marked with the preverb/χʲɜ/-, but a benefactive cannot normally appear on a verb that has three agreement prefixes already.
Gender only appears as part of thesecond person paradigm, and then only at the speaker's discretion. The feminine second person index is/χɜ/-, which behaves like other pronominal prefixes:/wɨsχʲɜntʷɨn/ ('he gives [it] to you [normal; gender-neutral] for me'), but compare/χɜsχʲɜntʷɨn/ 'he gives [it] to you [feminine] for me').
Oblique 1 markers are limited to marking the agreement of a noun before a relational preverb and Oblique 2 markers are used for not only marking agreement with local and directional preverbs but also the simple oblique, or dative, arguments.[5]
| Absolutive | Oblique (1 and 2) | Ergative | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First person | sg. | /s(ɨ)/- | /s(ɨ)/- ~/z/ | /s(ɨ)/- ~/z/ |
| pl. | /ʃ(ɨ)/- | /ʃ(ɨ)/- ~/ʒ/- | /ʃ(ɨ)/- ~/ʒ/- | |
| Second person | sg. | /wɨ/- | /w(ɨ)/- | /w(ɨ)/- |
| pl. | /ɕʷ(ɨ)/- | /ɕʷ(ɨ)/- ~/ʑʷ(ɨ)/- | /ɕʷ(ɨ)/- ~/ʑʷ(ɨ)/- | |
| sg. (joc., arc.) | /χɜ/- | /χɜ/- | /χɜ/- | |
| Third person | sg. | /ɐ/-,/jɨ/-,/ɨ/-,/Ø/- | /Ø/- | n(ɨ)/-/Ø/- |
| pl. | /ɐ/-,/jɨ/-,/Ø/- | /ɐ/- | /ɐ/-,/nɐ/- |
The second-person/χɜ/- is an archaic pronoun used to indicate that the person being referred to is a female, or heckling the speaker in some way.
Dynamic Ubykh verbs are split up in two groups: Group I which contain the simple tenses and Group II which contain derived counterpart tenses. Only the Karaclar dialect uses the progressive tense and the plural is unknown.
The singular-plural distinction is used when the subject, the ergative, is singular or plural.
Square brackets indicate elided vowels; parenthesis indicate optional parts of the stem; and the colon indicates the boundary of a morpheme.[5]
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Past | -/qʼɜ/ | -/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/ |
| Mirative Past | -/jtʼ/ | -/jɬ(ɜ)/ |
| Present | -/n/ | -/ɐ-n/ |
| Future I | -/ɜw/ | -/n[ɜ]-ɜw/ |
| Future II | -/ɜwːt/ | -/n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/ |
| (Progressive) | -/ɜwɨːn/ | ? |
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Pluperfect | -/qʼɜːjtʼ/ | -/qʼɜːjɬ(ɜ)/ ~ -/qʼɜːnɜːjtʼ/ |
| Imperfect | -/nɜːtjʼ/ | -/ɐ-nɜːjɬ(ɜ)/ |
| Conditional I | -/ɜwɨːjtʼ/ | -/n[ɜ]-ɜwɨːjɬ(ɜ)/ |
| Conditional II | -/ɜwːtʷːqʼɜ/ | -/(n[ɜ]-)ɜwːtʷːqʼɜ(-n)/ |
The verbs in the simple past tense are conjugated with -/qʼɜ/ in the singular and -/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/ in the plural.
Examples:
| Plurality | Person | Ubykh | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ/ | I ate |
| Second-person | /wɨ-fɨ-qʼɜ/ | you ate | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ/ | (s)he ate | |
| Plural | First-person | /ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/ | we ate |
| Second-person | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/ | you (all) ate | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/ | they ate |
The verbs in the mirative past tense are conjugated with -/jtʼ/ in the singular and -/jɬ(ɜ)/ in the plural.
Examples:
| Plurality | Person | Ubykh | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-jtʼ/ | I ate apparently |
| Second-person | /wɨ-fɨ-jtʼ/ | you ate apparently | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-jtʼ/ | (s)he ate apparently | |
| Plural | First-person | /ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/ | we ate apparently |
| Second-person | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/ | you (all) ate apparently | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/ | they ate apparently |
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/n/ in the singular and -/ɐ-n/ in the plural.
Examples:
| Plurality | Person | Ubykh | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-n/ | I eat |
| Second-person | /wɨ-fɨ-n/ | you eat | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-n/ | (s)he eats | |
| Plural | First-person | /ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/ | we eat |
| Second-person | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/ | you (all) eat | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-f-ɐ-n/ | they eat |
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/ɜw/ in the singular and -/n[ɜ]-ɜw/ in the plural. It conveys a sense of certainty, immediacy, obligation, or intentionality.
Examples:
| Plurality | Person | Ubykh | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ | I certainly will eat |
| Second-person | /wɨ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ | you certainly will eat | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ | (s)he certainly will eat | |
| Plural | First-person | /ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ | we certainly will eat |
| Second-person | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ | you (all) certainly will eat | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ | they certainly will eat |
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/ɜwːt/ in the singular and -/n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/ in the plural. It conveys a generic sense of the future as well as an exhortative sense such as:/ʃɨ-kʲʼɜ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ (let's go!).
Examples:
| Plurality | Person | Ubykh | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | /s(ɨ)-f-ɜwːt/ | I will eat |
| Second-person | /wɨ-f-ɜwːt/ | you will eat | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-f-ɜwːt/ | (s)he will eat | |
| Plural | First-person | /ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/ | we will eat |
| Second-person | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/ | you (all) will eat | |
| Third-person | /ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/ | they will eat |
In all dialects and speakers, only two static tenses exist: present and past.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Present | -/Ø/ | -/n(ɜ)/ |
| Past | -/jtʼ/ | -/jɬ(ɜ)/ |
There are five basic aspects that exist besides the aspects that exist within the Ubykh tense system. They are: habitual, iterative, exhaustive, excessive, and potential.
A speaker may combine one of these aspects with another to convey more complex aspects in conjunction with the tenses.[5]
| habitual | -/ɡʲɜ/ |
|---|---|
| iterative | -/ɐj(ɨ)/ |
| exhaustive | -/lɜ/ |
| excessive | -/tɕʷɜ/ |
| potential | -/fɜ/ |
A few meanings covered inEnglish byadverbs orauxiliary verbs are given in Ubykh by verb suffixes:
| First person | Second person | Third person | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |
| simple | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-n/ | /ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/ | /wɨ-fɨ-n/ | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-n/ | /ɐ-f-ɐ-n/ |
| habitual | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/ | /ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /wɨ-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/ | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ |
| iterative | /s(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/ | /ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/ | /wɨ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/ | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/ | /ɐ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/ | /ɐ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/ |
| exhaustive | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-lɜ-n/ | /ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /wɨ-fɨ-lɜ-n/ | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-lɜ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ |
| excessive | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/ | /ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /wɨ-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/ | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ |
| potential | /s(ɨ)-fɨ-fɜ-n/ | /ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /wɨ-fɨ-fɜ-n/ | /ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-fɜ-n/ | /ɐ-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/ |
Questions may be marked grammatically, using verb suffixes or prefixes:
Other types of questions, involving the pronouns 'where' and 'what', may also be marked only in the verbal complex:/mɐwkʲʼɜnɨj/ ('where are you going?'),/sɐwqʼɜqʼɜjtʼɨj/ ('what had you said?').
Many local, prepositional, and other functions are provided bypreverbal elements providing a large series ofapplicatives, and here Ubykh shows remarkable complexity. Two main types of preverbal elements exist: determinants and preverbs. The number of preverbs is limited, and mainly showlocation anddirection. The number of determinants is also limited, but the class is moreopen; some determinant prefixes include/tʃɜ/- ('with regard to a horse') and/ɬɜ/- ('with regard to the foot or base of an object').
For simple locations, there are a number of possibilities that can be encoded with preverbs, including (but not limited to):
There is also a separate directional preverb meaning 'towards the speaker':/j/-, which occupies a separate slot in the verbal complex. However, preverbs can have meanings that would take up entire phrases in English. The preverb/jtɕʷʼɐ/- signifies 'on the earth' or 'in the earth', for instance:/ʁɜdjɜɐjtɕʷʼɐnɐɬqʼɜ/ ('they buried his body'; literally, "they put his body in the earth"). Even more narrowly, the preverb/fɐ/- signifies that an action is done out of, into or with regard to a fire:/ɐmdʒɜnzɜtʃɨtʃɜqʲɜfɐstχʷɨn/ ('I take a brand out of the fire').
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Ubykhsyllables have a strong tendency to be CV, although VC and CVC also exist.Consonant clusters are not as large as in AbzhywaAbkhaz or inGeorgian, rarely being larger than two terms. Three-term clusters exist in two words -/ndʁɜ/ ('sun') and/pstɜ/ ('to swell up'),[9] but the latter is a loan from Adyghe, and the former more often pronounced/nədʁa/ when it appears alone.Compounding plays a large part in Ubykh and, indeed, in all Northwest Caucasiansemantics. For instance, the verbto love is expressed as/ʈʂʼɜnbɨjɜ/ (lit. 'to see well'),[10] as in/ʈʂʼɜnzbɨˈjɜn/'I love him'.[11]
Reduplication occurs in some roots, often those withonomatopoeic values (/χˤɜχˤɜ/,'to curry[comb]' from/χˤɜ/'to scrape';/kʼɨrkʼɨr/,'to cluck like a chicken' [a loan from Adyghe]); and/wɜrqwɜrq/,'to croak like a frog').[12]
Roots and affixes can be as small as one phoneme. The word/wɜntʷɐn/,'they give you to him', for instance, contains six phonemes, each a separate morpheme:
However, some words may be as long as sevensyllables (although these are usually compounds):/ʂɨqʷʼɜwɨɕɜɬɐdɨtʃɜ/ ('staircase').
As with all other languages, Ubykh is replete withidioms. The word/ntʷɜ/ ('door'), for instance, is an idiom meaning either "magistrate", "court", or "government." However, idiomatic constructions are even more common in Ubykh than in most other languages; the representation of abstract ideas with series of concrete elements is a characteristic of the Northwest Caucasian family. As mentioned above, the phrase meaning "You loved him" translates literally as 'You saw him well'; similarly, "she pleased you" is literally 'she cut your heart'. The term/wɨrɨs/ ('Russian'), an Arabic loan, has come to be a slang term meaning "infidel", "non-Muslim" or "enemy" (seeHistory below).[13]
The majority of loanwords in Ubykh are derived from eitherAdyghe orArabic, with smaller numbers fromPersian,Abkhaz, and theSouth Caucasian languages. Towards the end of Ubykh's life, a large influx of Adyghe words was noted; Vogt (1963) notes a few hundred examples. The phonemes/ɡ//k//kʼ/ were borrowed from Arabic and Adyghe./ɬʼ/ also appears to come from Adyghe, although it seems to have arrived earlier on. It is possible, too, that/ɣ/ is a loan from Adyghe, since most of the few words with this phoneme are obvious Adyghe loans:/pɐɣɜ/ ('proud'),/ɣɜ/ ('testis').
Many loanwords have Ubykh equivalents, but were dwindling in usage under the influence of Arabic, Circassian, and Russian equivalents:
Some words, usually much older ones, are borrowed from less influential stock: Colarusso (1994) sees/χˤʷɜ/ ('pig') as a borrowing fromProto-Semitic *huka, and/ɜɡʲɜrɨ/ ('slave') from anIranian root; however, Chirikba (1986) regards the latter as being of Abkhaz origin ( ← Abkhazagər-wa 'lower cast of peasants; slave', literally 'Megrelian').
In the scheme of Northwest Caucasian evolution, despite its parallels with Adyghe and Abkhaz, Ubykh forms a separate third branch of the family. It has fossilised palatal class markers where all other Northwest Caucasian languages preserve traces of an original labial class: the Ubykh word for 'heart',/ɡʲɨ/, corresponds to the reflex/ɡʷə/ in Abkhaz, Abaza, Adyghe, and Kabardian. Ubykh also possesses groups ofpharyngealised consonants. All other NWC languages possess true pharyngeal consonants, but Ubykh is the only language to use pharyngealisation as a feature of secondary articulation.
With regard to the other languages of the family, Ubykh is closer to Adyghe and Kabardian[contradictory] but shares many features with Abkhaz due to geographic influence; many later Ubykh speakers were bilingual in Ubykh and Adyghe.
While not many dialects of Ubykh existed, one divergentdialect of Ubykh has been noted (in Dumézil 1965:266-269). Grammatically, it is similar to standard Ubykh (i.e.Tevfik Esenç's dialect), but has a very different sound system, which had collapsed into just 62 phonemes:
Ubykh was spoken in the eastern coast of theBlack Sea aroundSochi until 1864, when the Ubykhs were driven out of the region by the Russians. They eventually came to settle in Turkey, founding the villages ofHacı Osman,Kırkpınar, Masukiye andHacı Yakup.Arabic andCircassian eventually became the preferred languages for everyday communication, and many words from these languages entered Ubykh in that period.
The Ubykh languagedied out on 7 October 1992, when its last fluent speaker,Tevfik Esenç, died.[2] Before his death, thousands of pages of material and many audio recordings had been collected and collated by a number of linguists, includingGeorges Charachidzé,Georges Dumézil,Hans Vogt,George Hewitt andA. Sumru Özsoy, with the help of some of its last speakers, particularly Tevfik Esenç andHuseyin Kozan.[2] Ubykh was never written by its speech community, but a few phrases were transcribed byEvliya Çelebi in hisSeyahatname and a substantial portion of the oral literature, along with some cycles of theNart saga, was transcribed. Tevfik Esenç also eventually learned to write Ubykh in the transcription that Dumézil devised.
Julius von Mészáros, a Hungarian linguist, visited Turkey in 1930 and took down some notes on Ubykh. His workDie Päkhy-Sprache was extensive and accurate to the extent allowed by his transcription system (which could not represent all the phonemes of Ubykh) and marked the foundation of Ubykh linguistics.
The FrenchmanGeorges Dumézil also visited Turkey in 1930 to record some Ubykh and would eventually become the most celebrated Ubykh linguist. He published a collection of Ubykh folktales in the late 1950s, and the language soon attracted the attention of linguists for its small number of phonemic vowels. Hans Vogt, a Norwegian, produced a monumental dictionary that, in spite of its many errors (later corrected by Dumézil), is still one of the masterpieces and essential tools of Ubykh linguistics.
Later in the 1960s and into the early 1970s, Dumézil published a series of papers on Ubykhetymology in particular and Northwest Caucasian etymology in general. Dumézil's bookLe Verbe Oubykh (1975), a comprehensive account of the verbal and nominal morphology of the language, is another cornerstone of Ubykh linguistics.
Since the 1980s, Ubykh linguistics has slowed drastically with the most recent treatise being Fenwick'sA Grammar of Ubykh (2011), who was also working on a dictionary.[14]
The Abkhaz writerBagrat Shinkuba's historical novelThe Last of the Departed is about the Ubykh people.[citation needed]
People who have published literature on Ubykh include:
Ubykh had been cited in theGuinness Book of Records (1996 ed.) as the language with the most consonantphonemes, but since 2017 the!Xóõ language (a member of the Tuu languages) has been considered by the book to have broken that record, with 130 consonants.[15] Ubykh has 20uvular and 29 purefricative phonemes, more than any other known language.
All examples from Dumézil 1968 and retranscribed by Fenwick.[16]
Fáxie
fɐ́χʲɜ
zebıyale
zɜ-bɨj-ɐlɜ
zewaqʼalé
zɜ-wɜqʼ-ɐlɜ́
azecíne
ɐ-zɜ-dʒɨ́-nɜ-n
Fáxie zebıyale zewaqʼalé azecíne
fɐ́χʲɜ zɜ-bɨj-ɐlɜ zɜ-wɜqʼ-ɐlɜ́ ɐ-zɜ-dʒɨ́-nɜ-n
long.ago one-sheep-COM one-goat-COM 3pABS-RECIP.OBL-accompany-PL-CONV
yaxhewtıní
j[ɜ]-ɐ-χˤ-ɜw:tɨ-nɨ́
aduıgiıqʼén.
ɐ-dʷɨ:gʲɨ-kʲɜ-qʼɜ́-n.
yaxhewtıní aduıgiıqʼén.
j[ɜ]-ɐ-χˤ-ɜw:tɨ-nɨ́ ɐ-dʷɨ:gʲɨ-kʲɜ-qʼɜ́-n.
NULL.ABS-3pERG-graze-FUT.II-CONV 3pABS-PVB-enter(PL)-PAST-PL
daxiebzínetʼın
d[ɜ]-ɐ-Ø-χʲɜ-bzɨ́-nɜ-tʼɨn
ábıj
ɐ́-bɨj
ácʼrefén
ɐ-ʈʂʼɜfɜ́-n
daxiebzínetʼın ábıj ácʼrefén
d[ɜ]-ɐ-Ø-χʲɜ-bzɨ́-nɜ-tʼɨn ɐ́-bɨj ɐ-ʈʂʼɜfɜ́-n
SUB-3pABS-3sOBL-BEN-meet-IMPF-NFIN the-sheep -the-front-OBL
giıtıní
Ø-Ø-gʲɨ-tɨ-nɨ́
aqárğue
ɐ-qɐ́rʁʷɜ[-n]
şreğecʼiedeqʼé
Ø-Ø-ʂɜ:ʁɜ-tɕʼɜdɜ-qʼɜ́
giıtıní aqárğue şreğecʼiedeqʼé
Ø-Ø-gʲɨ-tɨ-nɨ́ ɐ-qɐ́rʁʷɜ[-n] Ø-Ø-ʂɜ:ʁɜ-tɕʼɜdɜ-qʼɜ́
3pABS-3sOBL-PVB-be.standing(SG)-CONV the-gully[-OBL] 3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-jump-PAST
deşreğe-çʼiedetʼín
dɜ-Ø-Ø-ʂɜ:ʁɜ-tɕʼɜdɜ-tʼɨ́n
ğekʼuecé
ʁɜ-kʷʼɜtʃɜ́
qʼéşieqʼe
Ø-qʼɜ́ɕɜ-qʼɜ
ğélheqʼen
ʁɜ́-ɬɜqʼɜ-n
deşreğe-çʼiedetʼín ğekʼuecé qʼéşieqʼe ğélheqʼen
dɜ-Ø-Ø-ʂɜ:ʁɜ-tɕʼɜdɜ-tʼɨ́n ʁɜ-kʷʼɜtʃɜ́ Ø-qʼɜ́ɕɜ-qʼɜ ʁɜ́-ɬɜqʼɜ-n
SUB-3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-jump-CONV 3sPOSS-tail 3sABS-raise-PAST 3sPOSS-footprint-OBL
giıtuqʼejtʼ
Ø-Ø-gʲɨ́-tʷ-qʼɜ:jtʼ
wuqʼí
wɜqʼɨ́
aşueçegií
ɐ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ-gʲɨ́
giıtuqʼejtʼ wuqʼí aşueçegií
Ø-Ø-gʲɨ́-tʷ-qʼɜ:jtʼ wɜqʼɨ́ ɐ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ-gʲɨ́
3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-be.standing(SG)-PLUP[.NFIN] goat 3sABS-laugh-CONV
mğiawqʼé
Ø-mʁʲɐ-w-qʼɜ́
«wıtxiéşeçen
«wɨ-t-χʲɜ́-ʃʷɜtʃɜ-n
mğiawqʼé «wıtxiéşeçen
Ø-mʁʲɐ-w-qʼɜ́ «wɨ-t-χʲɜ́-ʃʷɜtʃɜ-n
3sABS-PVB-enter(SG)-PAST «2sABS-REL-BEN-laugh-PRES
sákiıy?»
Ø-sɐ́kʲɨ-j?»
qʼɜn
Ø-qʼɜ-n
aweqʼín
ɐ-wɜqʼɨ́-n
sákiıy?» qʼɜn aweqʼín
Ø-sɐ́kʲɨ-j?» Ø-qʼɜ-n ɐ-wɜqʼɨ́-n
3sABS-what[.STAT.PRES.NFIN]-INTERR 3sABS-say-CONV the-goat-OBL
déğadzğetʼín
dɜ́-Ø-ʁ[ɜ]-ɐ-dzʁɜ-tʼɨn
«wípşe
«wɨ́-pʃɜ
zbyeqʼé
Ø-z-bjɜ-qʼɜ́
déğadzğetʼín «wípşe zbyeqʼé
dɜ́-Ø-ʁ[ɜ]-ɐ-dzʁɜ-tʼɨn «wɨ́-pʃɜ Ø-z-bjɜ-qʼɜ́
SUB-3sABS-3sPOSS-PVB-ask-CONV «3sPOSS-bottom 3sABS-1sERG-see-PAST
wenéci
Ø-wɜnɜ́-dʑ
sıtxieşeçén»
sɨ-t-χʲɜ-ʂɜ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ́-n»
qʼɜqʼé
Ø-Ø-qʼɜ-qʼɜ́
wenéci sıtxieşeçén» qʼɜqʼé
Ø-wɜnɜ́-dʑ sɨ-t-χʲɜ-ʂɜ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ́-n» Ø-Ø-qʼɜ-qʼɜ́
3sABS-that-COP[.STAT.PRES] 1sABS-REL-PVB-laugh-PRES[.NFIN]» 3sABS-3sERG-say-PAST
ábıyıytʼíngiı
Ø-ɐ́-bɨjɨ-jtʼɨ-n-gʲɨ
díbrazen
Ø-Ø-dɨ́-brɐzɜ-n
«ğue
«ʁʷɜ
ábıyıytʼíngiı díbrazen «ğue
Ø-ɐ́-bɨjɨ-jtʼɨ-n-gʲɨ Ø-Ø-dɨ́-brɐzɜ-n «ʁʷɜ
3sABS-the-sheep-STAT.PAST[.NFIN]-ERG-EMPH 3sABS-3sERG-CAUS-turn-CONV «you(SG)
mışüe-sresrıní
mɨɕʷɜ-ʂɜʂɨnɨ́
wípşe
wɨ́-pʃɜ
ɐduın
ɐ-dʷɨ-n
giıt
Ø-Ø-gʲɨ-t
mışüe-sresrıní wípşe ɐduın giıt
mɨɕʷɜ-ʂɜʂɨnɨ́ wɨ́-pʃɜ ɐ-dʷɨ-n Ø-Ø-gʲɨ-t
day-every 2sPOSS-bottom the-field-OBL 3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-be.standing(SG)[.STAT.PRES]
wıgié
wɨ-gʲɜ́
wmcʼiáyın,
Ø-w-m-tɕʼ[ɜ]-ɐ́jɨ-n,
ğue
ʁʷɜ
zekié
zɜ:kʲɜ́
wıgié wmcʼiáyın, ğue zekié
wɨ-gʲɜ́ Ø-w-m-tɕʼ[ɜ]-ɐ́jɨ-n, ʁʷɜ zɜ:kʲɜ́
2sPOSS-self 3sABS-3sERG-NEG-know-ITER-CONV you(SG) once
sípşe
sɨ́-pʃɜ
déwbyeqʼeğafé
dɜ́-Ø-w-bjɜ-qʼɜ-ʁ[ɜ]:ɐfɜ́
wışueçén
wɨ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ́-n»
sípşe déwbyeqʼeğafé wışueçén
sɨ́-pʃɜ dɜ́-Ø-w-bjɜ-qʼɜ-ʁ[ɜ]:ɐfɜ́ wɨ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ́-n»
1sPOSS-bottom SUB-3sABS-3sERG-see-PAST[.NFIN]-becayuse 2sABS-laugh-PRES»
ınqʼeqʼé.
ɨ-Ø-n-qʼɜ-qʼɜ́.
ınqʼeqʼé.
ɨ-Ø-n-qʼɜ-qʼɜ́.
3sABS-3sOBL-3sERG-say-PAST
Once, a sheep and a goat went into the field to go grazing. Where they went to graze, they came upon a gully, and the sheep, who was in front, jumped over it. When the sheep jumped, its tail flew up. The goat, who had been following behind it, began to laugh.
"What are you laughing for?" the sheep asked the goat. "I saw your arse, that's what I'm laughing about," said the goat. The sheep turned to the goat and said, "your arse is out in the open every day without you knowing it. And you laugh because you saw mine once."
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)The proposedNorth Caucasian language family comprises theNortheast andNorthwest Caucasian language families. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Northwest (Pontic) |
|  | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Northeast (Caspian) |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Italics indicateextinct languages | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
