Tokhara Yabghus | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 625 CE–758 CE | |||||||||||||
Maximum extent of the territory controlled by the Yabghus of Tokharistan circa 625–652 CE | |||||||||||||
| Capital | Kunduz | ||||||||||||
| Religion | Buddhism[4] | ||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||
| Tardush Shad | |||||||||||||
| Historical era | Early Medieval | ||||||||||||
• Established | 625 CE | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 758 CE | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
| Today part of | Afghanistan Pakistan Uzbekistan Tajikistan | ||||||||||||
TheTokhara Yabghus orYabghus of Tokharistan (simplified Chinese:吐火罗叶护;traditional Chinese:吐火羅葉護;pinyin:Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù) were a dynasty ofWestern Turk rulers with the title "Yabghu"; who ruled from 625 CE in the area ofTokharistan north and south of theOxus River, with some smaller remnants surviving in the area ofBadakhshan until 758 CE. Their legacy extended to the southeast where it came into contact with theTurk Shahis and theZunbils until the 9th century CE.
The Turks initially occupied the area of north of theOxus (Transoxonia,Sogdiana) following their destruction of theHephthalites in 557–565 CE through an alliance with theSasanian Empire. The Sasanians, on the other hand, took control of the area south of the Oxus, withChaganiyan,Sind, Bust,Rukhkhaj,Zabulistan,Tokharistan,Turistan andBalistan being transformed into vassal kingdoms and principalities.[5] After this time, a tense Turco-Persian border existed along theOxus, which lasted several decades. The area south of the Oxus contained numerousHephthalites principalities, remnants of the greatHephthalite Empire destroyed by the alliance of the Turks and the Sasanians.[6]
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In 569–570, the Turks launched an offensive against the Sasanian Empire, and conquered the Hephthalite principalities south of the Oxus belonging to the Sasanian Empire. At that time the Sasanian Empire was embroiled in a war in the west, with theByzantine Empire. It seems the Turks reached theKabul–Gandhara area in 570.[6] The principalities of the Hephthalites, formerly vassals of the Sasanian Empire, accepted Turk supremacy and became vassals of the Western Turk qaghan, and theAlchon Huns continued to rule inKabul andGandhara, but the Turks apparently did not permanently occupy the territory south of the Oxus.[6] The Hephthalites aspired to independence from the Turks, and in 581 or 582 CE, they revolted in alliance with the Sasanians against the Turk KaghanTardu.[6]
In 588–589, the Turks underBagha Qaghan entered into a direct conflict with the Sasanians, in theFirst Perso-Turkic War. The Turks invaded the Sasanian territories south of the Oxus, where they attacked and routed the Sasanian soldiers stationed inBalkh, and then proceeded to conquer the city along withTalaqan,Badghis, andHerat.[7] But the Turks were defeated by the Sasanians underBahram Chobin, who entered the area north of the Oxus and killed the Turkish Khagan.[8]
A war broke out between the Sassanians and the Hephthalites in 606–607 or 616–617 CE, theSecond Perso-Turkic War. At that time, the Turkic Khagan sent an army to help the Hephthalites, and was able to bring a great defeat upon the Sasanians, advancing his troops as far asRay andIsfahan, butShikui Khagan recalled his armies without pressing his advantage.[9]
The Turks definitely intended to take control of the territories south of the Oxus, but were only ready sometime later, and took the opportunity when the Sasanian Empire again entered into conflict with the Byzantine Empire.[14]
In 625, Tong Yabgu invadedTokharistan and forced theHephthalite principalities to submit.[15][16] He went as far as theIndus River and took control of all the intervening principalities, replacing Hepthalite rulers by Turk ones.[14] The Turks were victorious, partly because the Sasanian Empire was into a difficult war with theByzantine Empire, theByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.[14]
According toCefu Yuangui, these principalities wereZabulistan,Kapisa-Gandhara,Khuttal,Chaghaniyan,Shignan,Shuman,Badhgis,Wakhan,Guzgan,Bamiyan,Kobadiyan andBadakhshan.[14][17] The areas ofKhuttal andKapisa-Gandhara had remained independent kingdoms under the easternmost "Hephthalites" (actuallyAlchon Hun) under kings such asNarendra, before being taken over as vassals by the Western Turks.[14] The appearance of the "crown with a bull's head" on the coin portraits of the last rulers of Kapisa-Gandhara Narendra II, can be considered as a sign of recognition of Turk sovereignty, since the titlebuqa (bull) had been in use from 599, when KhaganTardu united the Turk Empire.[14]
Tong Yabghu Qaghan then installed his sonTardush Shad (Chinese:達頭设;pinyin:Dátóu Shè), as the firstyabgu (sub-king) ofTokharistan, controlling all the new Turk realm south of the Oxus, from his capital atKunduz.[14]
Tardush Shad (Chinese:達頭设;pinyin:Dátóu Shè) was installed in Tokharistan, and ruled inKunduz with title of Tokharistan Yabgu (Chinese:吐火羅葉護;pinyin:Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù). He was married two times – both a daughter ofQu Boya (麴伯雅) – ruler ofQocho. WhenXuanzang visitedKunduz, he also brought a letter from his brother-in-law and ruler ofQochoQu Wentai (麴文泰) to Tardu. Yabgu received him despite being in ill condition. It was Tardu to advise him to make a trip westward toBalkh (modernAfghanistan), to see the Buddhist sites and relics. Xuanzang also witnessed a palace scandal when Tardu's firstborn sonIshbara Tegin fallen in love with his new step-mother (also aunt) and poisoned Tardu in 630.[18]
) in crescents along the outer margins.Ishbara Yabgu (Chinese:阿史那沙钵罗;pinyin:Ashina Shaboluo) was the son of Tardu Shad, and took over as Tokharistan Yabgu.[14] He was the first Tokharistan Yabghu to mint coins.[14] In these coins, in Sasanian style, his effigy represents him bearing a crown decorated with the bull's head and two wings. In one of the issues, the legend is: šb’lk’ yyp MLK’ (Išbara Jeb ˇ [= yabghu] šah, on the obverse) and pnˇcdh. h. wsp’ ("[minted in his] 15th [regnal year at] Khusp", on the reverse). This would date the coin to 645 CE, with a location for the mint atKhusp,Kuhistan.[19] Other known mints areHerat andShuburgan.[19]
After 650 however, the power of the Yabghus of Tokharistan fragmented, as they came, as least partially, under Tang suzerainty.[19] A Türk yabghu of Tokharistan recorded under the name of "Wu-shih-po of the A-shih-na dynasty" was the first yabghu to be confirmed by the Chinese Emperor.[20]
In 652–653 CE, the Arabs underAbdallah ibn Amir conquered the whole of Tokharistan and captured the city ofBalkh, as part of theMuslim conquests of Afghanistan.[19]
TheWestern Turkic Khaganate itself was destroyed by theTang dynasty in 657 CE, and most of his territories became protectorates of the Tang Empire, and organized into regional commanderies.[19] Kunduz became the site of the Yuezhi Commandery (月氏都督府,Yuèzhī Dūdùfû) under administration of theAnxi Protectorate.[21]
During the rule of the Umayyad caliphAli (656–661), the Arabs were expulsed from eastern Iran, as far asNishapur and the SasanianPeroz III was able to establish some level of control with the help of the yabghu of Tokharistan inSeistan.[14]
In 705, P’an-tu-ni-li, the yabghu of Tokharistan, is recorded as having sent a mission to the Chinese court.[22] He ruled fromBadakshan, as the area ofBalkh and the central areas of his territory were occupied by the Arabs, including Shuburgan, Khusp and Herat.[22]
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According to the chronicles of the ChineseCefu Yuangui, a young brother of Pantu Nili named Puluo (僕羅púluó in Chinese sources) again visited the Tang court in 718 and gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region.[23] Puluo described the power of "the Kings of Tokharistan", explaining that "Two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" recognize the authority of the Yabghus, and that it has been so since the time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of the establishment of the Yabghus of Tokharistan.[24] This account also shows that the Yabghu of Tokharistan ruled a vast area circa 718 CE, formed of the territories north and south of theHindu Kush, including the areas of Kabul and Zabul.[1] The territory ofGuzgan was also mentioned among the territories controlled by the Yabghus.[24]
Part of the Chinese entry for this account by Puluo is:
六年十一月丁未阿史特勒僕羅上書訴曰：僕羅克吐火羅葉護部下管諸國王都督刺史總二百一十二人謝芄王統領兵馬二十萬眾潯齬王統領兵馬二十萬眾骨吐國王石汗那國王解蘇國王石匿國王悒達國王護密國王護時健國王範延國王久越德建國王勃特山王各領五萬眾。僕羅祖父已來並是上件諸國之王蕃望尊重。
On the Dingwei day of the eleventh month in the sixth year [of theKaiyuan era (713–741 CE)], Ashi Tegin Puluo writes to the emperor: the Kings of States, Commander-in-chiefs (都督Dudu) and Regional Inspectors (刺史Cishi) under the Yabghu of Tokharistan,[a] the elder brother of Puluo, number two hundred and twelve, in all. The king ofZabul[b] is in charge of infantry and cavalry numbering two hundred thousand, and the king ofKabul[c] is also in charge of two hundred thousand infantry and cavalry. The Kings of the States ofKhuttal,[d]Chaghanian,[e]Jiesu,[f]Shughnan,[g]Yeda,[h]Humi,[i]Guzganan,[j]Bamiyan,[k]Quwādhiyān,[l] andBadakhshan[m] each lead fifty thousand troops. Since the grandfather of Puluo, theYehu Tuhuolo [Yabghu of Tokharistan] has become king of the above-mentioned states: he is greatly respected."
— Cefu Yuangui 3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999 (Claims, Foreign Subjects), 718 CE.[25][3][27][28]
Puluo, writing in 718 CE, finally reaffirmed the loyalty of the Tokhara Yabghus towards the Tang dynasty, probably since the time of the fall of theWestern Turks to China (657), confirming at least nominal control of the Chinese administration over the region for the last sixty years:[24]
然火羅葉護積代已來，於大唐忠赤，朝貢不絕。
The Yabghus of Tokharistan, for several generations until now, have been sincerely devoted to the greatTang dynasty, they have without interruption paid their respects and brought tribute.
— Cefu Yuangui 3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999 (Claims, Foreign Subjects), 718 CE.[24][31]
c. 689 CE, theHephthalite ruler ofBadghis and the Arab rebel Musa ibn Abd Allah ibn Khazim, son of theZubayrid governor of KhurasanAbd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami, allied against the forces of theUmayyad Caliphate.[32] The Hepthalites and their allies capturedTermez in 689, repelled the Arabs, and occupied the whole region ofKhorasan for a brief period, with Termez as they capital, described by the Arabs as "the headquarters of the Hephthalites" (dār mamlakat al-Hayāṭela).[33][34]
The Arabs of theUmayyad Caliphate underYazid ibn al-Muhallab re-capturedTermez in 704.[32][35]Nezak Tarkan, the ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a new revolt in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, the Yabghu of Tokharistan.[33] In 710,Qutaiba ibn Muslim was able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkan who was executed onal-Hajjaj's orders, despite promises of pardon, while the Yabghu was exiled toDamascus and kept there as a hostage.[36][37][38]
TheByzantine EmperorLeo III the Isaurian who haddefeated their common enemy the Arabs in 717 CE, sentan embassy to China through Central Asia in 719 CE which probably met with the Tokhara Yabghus and theTurk Shahis, who in honour of the Byzantine Emperor even named one of their own rulers "Caesar of Rome" (which they rendered phonetically as King "Fromo Kesaro").[41][n] The Chinese annals record that "In the first month of the seventh year of the periodKaiyuan [719 CE] their Lord [拂菻王, "the King ofFulin"] sent the Ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [吐火羅, Tokhara] (...) to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent Ta-te-seng ["priests of great virtue"] to our court with tribute."[42]
Turk ("T’u-chüeh") kingdoms were in the territories of Gandhara, Kapisa andZabulistan around 723–729 CE, according to the testimony the Korean pilgrimHui Chao.[14] Huei-chao also mentioned that in 726 CE, the Arabs occupiedBalkh, and the Turks were forced to flee toBadakshan:
I arrived in Tokharistan (吐火羅國Tuhuoluo-guo). The home city of the king is calledBalkh (縛底那). At this time the troops of the Arabs (大寔國)[o] are there and they occupy it. Its King, Wives and Court was forced to flee one month's journey to the east and lives inBadakhshan. Now Balkh belongs to the Arabs' domain. (...) The King, the nobles and the people revere theThree Jewels (Buddhism). There are many monasteries and monks; they practice theHinayana teachings.
Chinese sources mention a few years later yabghus who sent missions to the Tang court: Ku-tu-lu Tun Ta-tu (Qutluγ Ton Tardu) asked for help against the Arabs in 729 CE, Shih-li-mang-kia-lo (Sri Mangala) asked for help against the Tibetans in 749 CE, and received this help from the Chinese, and in 758 CE Wu-na-to (Udita?) visited in person the Chinese court and participated in the fight against the rebelAn Lu-shan.[22]
In theNestorian Stele of Xi'an, erected in 781 CE, theNestorian monkJingjing mentioned inSyriac that his grandfather was a missionary-priest fromBalkh in Tokharistan.[43][44]
). In this realistic portrait, he wears a triple-crescent crown and the Turkic double-lapelcaftan. Late 7th to early 8th century CE.[45][46][47]In the area ofKapisa-Gandhara, theTurk Shahi (665–850 CE), a probable political extension and vassals of the neighbouring Yabghus of Tokharistan, remained an obstacle to the eastward expansion of theAbbasid Caliphate.[41][1]
c. 650 CE, the Arabs attacked Shahi territory from the west, and capturedKabul.[41] But the Turk Shahi were able to mount a counter-offensive and repulsed the Arabs, taking back the areas of Kabul andZabulistan (aroundGhazni), as well as the region ofArachosia as far asKandahar.[41] The Arabs again failed to capture Kabul and Zabulistan in 697–698 CE, and their generalYazid ibn Ziyad was killed in the action.[41] A few years later however the Arabs defeated and killed the Kabul Shah and conquered Kabul under Umayyad generalQutayba ibn Muslim.[48][49][50]
Nezak Tarkhan, the ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a revolt against the Arabs in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, theYabghu of Tokharistan.[33] In 710, the Umayyad generalQutayba ibn Muslim was able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkhan, who was executed on the orders ofal-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, while the Yabghus, who had ruled parts of Tokharistan as well as Badakhshan, was exiled toDamascus and kept there as a hostage.[36][37][51]
From 719 CE,Tegin Shah was the king of the Turk Shahis. He then abdicated in 739 CE in favour of his sonFromo Kesaro, probable phonetic transcription of "Caesar of Rome" in honor of "Caesar", the title of the thenEast Roman EmperorLeo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs in 717 CE, and sent an embassy through Central Asia in 719 CE.[41][p]Fromo Kesaro appears to have fought vigorously against the Arabs, and his victories may have forged the Tibetan epic legend ofKing Phrom Ge-sar.[41]
The Turk Shahis eventually weakened against the Arabs in the late 9th century CE.[41]Kandahar,Kabul andZabul were lost to the Arabs, while inGandhara theHindu Shahi took over. The last Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman, was deposed by aBrahmin minister, possibly named Vakkadeva,[52][53][54] in c. 850, signaling the end of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty, and the beginning of theHindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul.[55]
These was a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by the Yabghus of Tokharistan during 7th–8th centuries CE, either as a result of the Sasanian cultural heritage, or as a result of the continued development ofBuddhist art.[56] The works of art of this period in Afghanistan, with a sophistication and cosmopolitanism comparable to other works of art of theSilk Road such as those ofKizil, are attributable to the sponsorship of the Turks.[57]
![Buddha wearing a crown and cape. Painting in niche "I" at Bamiyan, 7th century CE.[58][59]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.m.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBuddha_wearing_a_crown_and_cape._Painting_in_niche_I_at_Bamiyan%2c_7th_century_CE.jpg)
Buddhism inTokharistan is said to have enjoyed a revival under the Turks. Several monasteries of Tokharistan dated to the 7th–8th centuries display beautiful Buddhist works of art, such asKalai Kafirnigan,Ajina Tepe,Khisht Tepe orKafyr Kala, around which Turkic nobility and populations followedHinayana Buddhism.[62] The Turks were apparently quite tolerant of other religions.[62]
The mural paintings ofBamiyan display male devotees in double-lapel caftans, also attributable to the local sponsorship of the Western Turks.[57]
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