Thetransient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1), also known as thecapsaicin receptor and thevanilloid receptor 1, is aprotein that, inhumans, is encoded by theTRPV1gene. It was the first isolated member of the transient receptor potentialvanilloid receptor proteins that in turn are a sub-family of the transient receptor potential protein group.[5][6] This protein is a member of theTRPV group oftransient receptor potential family ofion channels.[7]Fatty acidmetabolites with affinity for this receptor are produced bycyanobacteria, whichdiverged fromeukaryotes at least 2billion years ago.[8]The function of TRPV1 is detection and regulation ofbody temperature. In addition, TRPV1 provides a sensation of scalding heat and pain (nociception). In primary afferentsensory neurons, it cooperates withTRPA1[9][10] (achemical irritant receptor) to mediate the detection of noxious environmental stimuli.[11]
TRPV1 is an element of or mechanism used by themammaliansomatosensory system.[12] It is a nonselectivecation channel that may be activated by a wide variety ofexogenous andendogenous physical and chemical stimuli. The best-known activators of TRPV1 are temperature greater than 43 °C (109 °F), acidic conditions,capsaicin (the irritating compound in hot chili peppers), andallyl isothiocyanate (thepungent compound in mustard and wasabi).[13] The activation of TRPV1 leads to a painful, burning sensation. Its endogenous activators include lowpH (acidic conditions), theendocannabinoidanandamide, N-oleyl-dopamine, andN-arachidonoyl-dopamine. TRPV1 receptors are found mainly in thenociceptiveneurons of theperipheral nervous system, but they have also been described in many other tissues, including thecentral nervous system. TRPV1 is involved in the transmission and modulation ofpain (nociception), as well as the integration of diverse painful stimuli.[14][15]
The sensitivity of TRPV1 to noxious stimuli, such as high temperatures, is not static. Upon tissue damage and the consequentinflammation, a number of inflammatory mediators, such as variousprostaglandins andbradykinin, are released. These agents increase the sensitivity of nociceptors to noxious stimuli. This manifests as an increased sensitivity to painful stimuli (hyperalgesia) or pain sensation in response to non-painful stimuli (allodynia). Most sensitizing pro-inflammatory agents activate thephospholipase C pathway. Phosphorylation of TRPV1 byprotein kinase C has been shown to play a role in sensitization of TRPV1. The cleavage of PIP2 by PLC-beta can result in disinhibition of TRPV1 and, as a consequence, contribute to the sensitivity of TRPV1 to noxious stimuli.
Upon prolonged exposure tocapsaicin, TRPV1 activity decreases, a phenomenon calleddesensitization. Extracellularcalcium ions are required for this phenomenon, thus influx of calcium and the consequential increase of intracellular calcium mediate this effect.[16] Various signaling pathways such as phosphorylation by PKA and PKC, interaction withcalmodulin, dephosphorylation bycalcineurin,[17] and the decrease ofPIP2, have been implicated in the regulation of desensitization of TRPV1. Desensitization of TRPV1 is thought to underlie the paradoxicalanalgesic effect of capsaicin.
As a result of its involvement innociception, TRPV1 has been a target for the development of pain reducers (analgesics). Three major strategies have been used:
The TRPV1 receptor can be used to measure how an organism can sense temperature change. In the lab the receptor may be removed from mice giving them the inability to detect differences in ambient temperature. In the pharmaceutical field this allows for the blocking of heat receptors giving patients with inflammatory disorders or severe burning pains a chance to heal without the pain. The lack of the TRPV1 receptor gives a glimpse into the developing brain as heat can kill most organisms in large enough doses, so this removal process shows researchers how the inability to sense heat may be detrimental to the survivability of an organism and then translate this to human heat disorders.[citation needed]
TRPV1 plays an important role not only inneurones but also in immune cells. Activation of TRPV1 modulates immune response including the release of inflammatorycytokines,chemokines, and the ability tophagocytose. However, the role of TRPV1 in immune cells is not entirely understood and it is currently intensely studied. TRPV1 is not the only TRP channel expressed in immune cells.TRPA1,TRPM8 andTRPV4 are the most relevant TRP channels that are also studied in immune cells.[18]
The expression of TRPV1 was confirmed in the cells of innate immunity as well as the cells of adaptive immunity. TRPV1 can be found inmonocytes,macrophages,dendritic cells,T lymphocytes,natural killer cells andneutrophiles.[19] TRPV1 is said to be potentially very important in immune cell functioning as it senses higher temperature and lower pH, which can affect the immune cell performance.[20]
TRPV1 is an important membrane channel inT cells as it regulates the influx of calcium cations. TRPV1's involvement is mainly in T cell receptor signalling (TCR) signalling, T cell activation andTCR-mediated influx of calcium ions,[19] but it is involved in T cellcytokine production as well.[20] Indeed, T cells with TRPV1 knockout show impaired calcium uptake after T cell activation viaTCR, thus they show dysregulation in signalling pathways such asNF-κB andNFAT.[18]
Regarding innate immunity, activation of TRPV1 bycapsaicin has been shown to suppress the production of nitrite radical,superoxide anion andhydrogen peroxide bymacrophages. Furthermore, administration ofcapsaicin, and subsequent activation of TRPV1, suppressesphagocytosis indendritic cells. In a mouse model, TRPV1 affectdendritic cell maturation and function, however, further studies are needed to clarify this effect in humans. Inneutrophils, the increase in cytosolic calcium cations leads to synthesis ofprostaglandins. Activation of TRPV1 bycapsaicin modulatesneutrophil immune response due to the higher influx of calcium ions into the cell.[19]
TRPV1 is also considered a novel therapeutic agent in many inflammatory diseases. Multiple studies have proven that TRPV1 influences the outcome of several inflammatory diseases such as chronicasthma, esophageal inflammation,rheumatoid arthritis andcancer. Studies using TRPV1's agonists and antagonists have shown that their administration indeed changes the course of inflammation. However, at this point, there is a lot of contradictive evidence about what type of response, pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory, TRPV1's activation induces. Further research needs to be carried out. Meanwhile, it is important to highlight that TRPV1's influence on inflammatory diseases is probably not limited to only immune cells as it is rather an interplay between immune cells,neurons, and other cell types (epithelial cells etc.).[20]
TRPV1 was found to be overexpressed in several types ofcancers, e.g.,pancreatic cancer and colonadenocarcinoma. This suggests that certain types ofcancers might be more prone tocell death mediated bycapsaicin-induced (and also othervanilloid-induced) cell death. Indeed, studies have shown inversed correlation of consumption of chili-based foods and all-cause mortality along withcancers. This beneficial impact of the consumption of chili-based foods was attributed to capsaicinoid content.[19]
TRPV1 activation caused by its agonistcapsaicin was shown to induce G0-G1 cell arrest andapoptosis in leukemic cell lines,adult T-cell leukaemia andmultiple myeloma. Capsaicin reduces the expression of anti-apoptotic proteinBcl-2 and it also promotes activation ofp53, a tumour-suppressor protein known as a major regulator ofcell death. This effect ofcapsaicin in both cases subsequently leads to above-mentionedapoptosis.[19]
The interplay betweenneurons and immune cells is a well-known phenomenon.[21] TRPV1 plays its role in neuroinflammation, being expressed both in neurons and in immune cells. Significant importance should be paid to the confirmed expression of TRPV1 inmicroglia andastrocytes, cells found close toneurons. The neuro-immune axis is the place of production of neuroinflammatory molecules and receptors that interplay between the two systems and ensure a complex response to external stimuli (or to the body's own pathologies). Studying TRPV1's involvement in neuroinflammation has a great therapeutical significance for the future.[22]
Cutaneus neurons expressing TRPV1 anddendritic cells were found to be located close to each other. Activation of TRPV1 channels inneurons is associated with subsequent production ofinterleukin 23 (IL-23) bydendritic cells and further production ofIL-17 byT cells. These interleukins are important for host defence against pathogenic fungi (such asCandida albicans) and bacteria (such asStaphylococcus aureus), thus TRPV1's activation can lead to better defence against thesepathogens, thanks to the neuro-immune axis.[20]
TRPV1 is said to contribute toautophagy ofmicroglia via its Ca2+-signalling, which leads to mitochondria-inducedcell death. The TRPV1 channel also influences microglia-induced inflammation. Migration andchemotaxis ofmicroglia andastrocytes seems to be affected by TRPV1's interaction with thecytoskeleton and Ca2+-signalling. TRPV1 is therefore involved in the neuro-immune axis via its function inmicroglia as well.[22]
These drugs can affect body temperature (hyperthermia) which is a challenge to therapeutic application. For example, a transient temperature gain (~1 °C for a duration of approximately 40 minutes, reverting to baseline by 40 minutes) was measured in rats with the application of TRPV1 antagonistAMG-9810.[27] The role of TRPV1 in the regulation of body temperature has emerged in the last few years. Based on a number of TRPV-selectiveantagonists' causing a mild increase in body temperature (hyperthermia), it was proposed that TRPV1 is tonically active in vivo and regulates body temperature[27] by telling the body to "cool itself down". Without these signals, the body overheats. Likewise, this explains the propensity of capsaicin (a TRPV1 agonist) to cause sweating (i.e.: a signal to reduce body temperature). In a recent report, it was found that tonically active TRPV1 channels are present in the viscera and keep an ongoing suppressive effect on body temperature.[28] Recently, it was proposed that predominant function of TRPV1 is body temperature maintenance.[29] Experiments have shown that TRPV1 blockade increases body temperature in multiple species, including rodents and humans, suggesting that TRPV1 is involved in body temperature maintenance.[27] In 2008,AMG-517, a highly selective TRPV1 antagonist was dropped out of clinical trials due to the causation of hyperthermia (~38.3 °C mean increase which was most intense on day 1 but was attenuated on days 2–7.[30] Another molecule,SB-705498, was also evaluated in the clinic but its effect on body temperature was not reported.[31][32] As we increase understanding of modality specific agonism of TRPV1 it seems that next generation therapeutics targeting TRPV1 have the potential to side-step hyperthermia.[33] Moreover, for at least two indications or approaches this may be a secondary issue. Where the therapeutic approach (e.g., in analgesia) is agonist-mediated desensitization then the hyperthermic effects of antagonists may not be relevant. Secondarily in applications such as TRPV1 antagonism for the treatment of severe conditions such as heart failure, then there may be an acceptable trade-off with mild hyperthermia, although no hyperthermia was observed in rodent models of heart failure treated with BCTC,SB-366791 or AMG-9810.[34][35] Post translational modification of TRPV1 protein by itsphosphorylation is critical for its functionality. Reports published from NIH suggest that Cdk5-mediated phosphorylation of TRPV1 is required for its ligand-induced channel opening.[36]
TRPV1 is activated by numerous agonists from natural sources.[38] Agonists such ascapsaicin andresiniferatoxin activate TRPV1 and, upon prolonged application, cause TRPV1 activity to decrease (desensitization), leading to alleviation of pain via the subsequent decrease in the TRPV1 mediated release of inflammatory molecules following exposures to noxious stimuli. Agonists can be applied locally to the painful area in various forms, generally as a patch or an ointment. Numerous capsaicin-containing creams are available over the counter, containing low concentrations of capsaicin (0.025 - 0.075%). It is debated whether these preparations actually lead to TRPV1 desensitization; it is possible that they act via counter-irritation. Novel preparations containing higher capsaicin concentration (up to 10%) are under clinical trials.[39] Eight percent capsaicin patches have recently become available for clinical use, with supporting evidence demonstrating that a 30-minute treatment can provide up to 3 months analgesia by causing regression of TRPV1-containing neurons in the skin.[40] Currently, these treatments must be re-administered on a regular (albeit infrequent) schedule in order to maintain their analgesic effects.
Certain metabolites of polyunsaturated fatty acids have been shown to stimulate cells in a TRPV1-dependent fashion. The metabolites oflinoleic acid, including 13(S)-hydroxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoic acid (13(S)-HODE), 13(R)-hydroxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoic acid (13(R)-HODE, 9(S)-hydroxy-10(E),12(Z)-octadecadienoic acid (9(S)-HODE), 9(R)-hydroxy-10(E),12(Z)-octadecadienoic acid (9(R)-HODE), and their respective keto analogs, 13-oxoODE and 9-oxoODE (see13-HODE and9-HODE sections on direct actions), activate peripheral and central mouse pain sensing neurons. Reports disagree on the potencies of these metabolites with, for example, the most potent one, 9(S)-HODE, requiring at least 10 micromoles/liter.[50] or a more physiological concentration of 10 nanomoles/liter[51] to activate TRPV1 in rodent neurons. The TRPV1-dependency of these metabolites' activities appears to reflect their direct interaction with TPRV1. Although relatively weak agonists of TRPV1 in comparison to anandamide,[50] these linoleate metabolites have been proposed to act through TRPV1 in mediating pain perception in rodents[51][52][53] and to cause injury to airway epithelial cells and thereby to contribute toasthma disease[54] in mice and therefore possibly humans. Certainarachidonic acid metabolites, including 20-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (see20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid)[55] and 12(S)-hydroperoxy-5Z,8Z,10E,12S,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (12(S)-HpETE), 12(S)-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,10E,12S,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (12(S)-HETE (see12-HETE),hepoxilin A3 (i.e. 8R/S-hydroxy-11,12-oxido-5Z,9E,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid) and HxB3 (i.e. 10R/S-hydroxy-11,12-oxido-5Z,8Z,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid) likewise activate TRPV1 and may thereby contribute to tactile hyperalgesia and allodynia (seeHepoxilin § Pain perception).[56][57][58]
Studies with mice, guinea pig, and human tissues and in guinea pigs indicate that another arachidonic acid metabolite,Prostaglandin E2, operates through itsprostaglandin EP3G protein coupled receptor to triggercough responses. Its mechanism of action involves activation and/or sensitization of TRPV1 (as well asTRPA1) receptors, presumably by an indirect mechanism. Genetic polymorphism in the EP3 receptor (rs11209716[59]), has been associated withACE inhibitor-induced cough in humans.[60][61]
Resolvin E1 (RvE1), RvD2 (seeresolvins),neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), andmaresin 1 (Mar1) are metabolites of theomega 3 fatty acids,eicosapentaenoic acid (for RvE1) ordocosahexaenoic acid (for RvD2, NPD1, and Mar1). These metabolites are members of thespecialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) class of metabolites that function to resolve diverse inflammatory reactions and diseases in animal models and, it is proposed, humans. These SPMs also dampen pain perception arising from various inflammation-based causes in animal models. The mechanism behind their pain-dampening effects involves the inhibition of TRPV1, probably (in at least certain cases) by an indirect effect wherein they activate other receptors located on the neurons or nearbymicroglia orastrocytes.CMKLR1,GPR32,FPR2, andNMDA receptors have been proposed to be the receptors through which these SPMs operate todown-regulate TRPV1 and thereby pain perception.[62][63][64][65][66]
N-Arachidonoyl dopamine, an endocannabinoid found in the human CNS, structurally similar to capsaicin, activates the TRPV1 channel with anEC50 of approximately of 50 nM.[15]
N-Oleyl-dopamine, another endogenous agonist, binds to human VR1 with an Ki of 36 Nm.[67]
The plant-biosynthesized cannabinoidcannabidiol also shows "either direct or indirect activation" of TRPV1 receptors.[70][43] TRPV1 colocalizes withCB1 receptors andCB2 receptors insensory andbrainneurons respectively, and other plant-cannabinoids likeCBN,CBG,CBC,THCV, andCBDV are also agonists of thision channel.[71][70] There is also evidence that non cannabinoid components of the Cannabis secondary metabolome such asmyrcene activate TRPV1.[72]
Thevitamin D metabolitescalcifediol (25-hydroxy vitamin D or 25OHD) andcalcitriol (1,25-hydroxy vitamin D or 1,25OHD) act as endogenous ligands of TRPV1.[73]
TRPV1 is also expressed at high levels in thecentral nervous system and has been proposed as a target for treatment not only of pain but also for other conditions such asanxiety.[74]Furthermore, TRPV1 appears to mediate long-term synaptic depression (LTD) in thehippocampus.[75] LTD has been linked to a decrease in the ability to make new memories, unlike its oppositelong-term potentiation (LTP), which aids in memory formation. A dynamic pattern of LTD and LTP occurring at many synapses provides a code for memory formation. Long-term depression and subsequent pruning of synapses with reduced activity is an important aspect of memory formation. In rat brain slices, activation of TRPV1 with heat or capsaicin induced LTD while capsazepine blocked capsaicin's ability to induce LTD.[75] In the brainstem (solitary tract nucleus), TRPV1 controls the asynchronous and spontaneous release of glutamate from unmyelinated cranial visceral afferents - release processes that are active at normal temperatures and hence quite distinct from TRPV1 responses in painful heat.[76] Hence, there may be therapeutic potential in modulating TRPV1 in the central nervous system, perhaps as a treatment for epilepsy (TRPV1 is already a target in the peripheral nervous system for pain relief).
Thedorsal root ganglion (DRG)neurons of mammals were known to express a heat-sensitive ion channel that could be activated by capsaicin.[80] The research group ofDavid Julius, therefore, created acDNA library of genes expressed indorsal root ganglion neurons, expressed the clones inHEK 293 cells, and looked for cells that respond to capsaicin with calcium influx (which HEK-293 normally do not). After several rounds of screening and dividing the library, a single clone encoding the TRPV1 channel was finally identified in 1997.[5] It was the first TRPV channel to be identified. Julius was awarded the 2021 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery.
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Overview of all the structural information available in thePDB forUniProt:O35433 (Rat Transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1) at thePDBe-KB.
TheEndocannabinoidome The World of Endocannabinoids and Related Mediators Book • 2014
