Synthetic fibers orsynthetic fibres (inBritish English;see spelling differences) arefibers made by humans throughchemical synthesis, as opposed tonatural fibers that are directly derived fromliving organisms, such asplants likecotton orfur from animals. They are the result of extensive research byscientists aimed at replicating naturally occurringanimal andplant fibers. In general, synthetic fibers are created byextruding fiber-forming materials throughspinnerets, forming a fiber. These are called synthetic or artificial fibers. The word 'polymer' comes from the Greek prefix 'poly,' which means 'many,' and the suffix 'mer,' which means 'single units'. (Note: each single unit of a polymer is called a monomer).
Hilaire de Chardonnet, a Frenchengineer andindustrialist, invented the first artificialsilk, which he called "Chardonnet silk". In the late 1870s, Chardonnet was working withLouis Pasteur on a remedy to the epidemic that was destroying Frenchsilkworms. Failure to clean up a spill in the darkroom resulted in Chardonnet's discovery ofnitrocellulose as a potential replacement for real silk. Realizing the value of such a discovery, Chardonnet began to develop his new product,[1] which he displayed at theParis Exhibition of 1889.[2] Chardonnet's material was extremely flammable, and was subsequently replaced with other, more stable materials.
The first successful process was developed in 1894 by English chemistCharles Frederick Cross and his collaboratorsEdward John Bevan and Clayton Beadle. They named the fiber "viscose". This was because the reaction product ofcarbon disulfide andcellulose under alkaline conditions gave a highly viscous solution ofxanthate.[3] The first commercial viscoserayon was produced by the UK companyCourtaulds in 1905. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924, with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon andcellophane. A similar product known ascellulose acetate was discovered in 1865. Rayon and acetate are both artificial fibers, but not truly synthetic, being made fromwood.[4]
Nylon, the first synthetic fiber in the "fully synthetic" sense of that term, was developed byWallace Carothers, an American researcher brought to chemical firmDuPont in 1927.[5] The first nylon was nylon 66, synthesized on February 28, 1935. Nylon made its debut in theUnited States as a replacement forsilk just in time for the introduction of rationing duringWorld War II. Its novel use as a material for women'sstockings overshadowed more practical uses, such as a replacement for the silk inparachutes and othermilitary uses likeropes.[citation needed]
The firstpolyester fiber was patented in Britain in 1928 by the International General Electric company.[6] It was also produced by British chemists working at theCalico Printers' Association,John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson,[7][8] in 1941. They produced and patented one of the first polyester fibers which they namedTerylene, also known asDacron, equal to or surpassingnylon in toughness and resilience.[9]ICI andDuPont went on to produce their own versions of the fiber.
The world production of synthetic fibers was 55.2 million tonnes in 2014.[10]
About half of all fibres are synthetic, with applications in every field of fiber and textile technology. Although many classes of fibers based on synthetic polymers have been evaluated as potentially valuable commercial products, four of them -nylon,polyester,acrylic andpolyolefin - dominate the market. These four account for approximately 98 percent by volume of synthetic fiber production, with polyester alone accounting for around 60 percent.[11]
Synthetic fibers are non-biodegradable and may take 200 years or more to decompose, contributing to long-term pollution inlandfills and the environment.[12] Each laundry cycle involving synthetic garments can release up to 700,000microplastic fibers, which often enter marine ecosystems and contribute to microplastic pollution.[13]
The production of synthetic fibers is associated with high greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, producing 1 kg ofacrylic emits 35.7 kg of CO2 equivalents, nylon emits 32 kg, and polyester emits 27.2 kg. These emissions are significant compared to many natural fibers. Additionally,nylon production releases nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas 310 times more potent than CO2, making its impact especially severe.Acrylic, while praised for its softness, has a short garment lifespan and limited durability, leading to more frequent disposal and increased environmental burden.[12]
Common synthetic fibers include:
Specialty synthetic fibers include:
Other synthetic materials used in fibers include:
Modern fibers that are made from older artificial materials include:
