Shunga Empire | |||||||||||||||||||
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| 185 BCE–73 BCE | |||||||||||||||||||
Territory of the Shungasc. 150 BCE.[1] | |||||||||||||||||||
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| Religion | |||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||
| Emperor | |||||||||||||||||||
| Pushyamitra (first) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Agnimitra | |||||||||||||||||||
| Vasumitra | |||||||||||||||||||
| Devabhuti (last) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Ancient India | ||||||||||||||||||
• Assassination of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga | 185 BCE | ||||||||||||||||||
• Assassination ofDevabhuti byVasudeva Kanva | 73 BCE | ||||||||||||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||||||||||||
TheShunga Empire (IAST:Śuṅga) was a ruling entity centred aroundMagadha and controlled most of the northernIndian subcontinent from around 187 to 75 BCE. The dynasty was established byPushyamitra, after taking the throne of Magadha from theMauryas. The Shunga empire's capital wasPataliputra, but later emperors such asBhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar (modernVidisha) in easternMalwa.[2] This dynasty is also responsible for successfully fighting and resisting the Greeks inShunga–Greek War.[3][4][5]
Pushyamitra ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his sonAgnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the second king of the dynasty, the empire rapidly disintegrated:[6] inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shungahegemony.[7] The dynasty is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought theKalinga, theSatavahana dynasty, theIndo-Greek kingdom and possibly thePanchalas andMitras of Mathura.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period, including smallterracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as thestupa atBharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa atSanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant ofBrahmi script and was used to writeSanskrit.
The Shungas were important patrons of culture at a time when some of the most important developments inHindu thought were taking place.Patanjali'sMahābhāṣya was composed in this period. Artistry also progressed with the rise of theMathura art style.
The last of the Shunga emperors wasDevabhuti (83–73 BCE). He was assassinated by his ministerVasudeva Kanva and was said to have been overfond of the company of women. TheKanva dynasty succeeded the Shungas around 73 BCE.
The name "Shunga" has only been used for convenience to designate the historical polity now generally described as "Shunga empire", or the historical period known as the "Shunga period", which follows the fall of theMaurya Empire.[8] The term appears in a single epigraphic inscription inBharhut, in which a dedication to theBuddhist Bharhutstupa is said to have been made "at the time of the Suga kings" (Suganam raje), with no indication as to whom these "Suga kings" might be.[8] Other broadly contemporary inscriptions, such as theHeliodorus pillar inscription, are only assumed to relate to Shunga rulers.[8] TheAyodhya Inscription of Dhana mentions a ruler namedPushyamitra, but does not mention the name "Shunga".
The Bharut epigraph appears on a pillar of the gateway of the stupa, and mentions its erection "during the rule of theSugas, byVatsiputra Dhanabhuti".[9][10] The expression used (Suganam raje,Brahmi script: 𑀲𑀼𑀕𑀦𑀁 𑀭𑀚𑁂), may mean "during the rule of the Sugas [Shungas]", although not without ambiguity as it could also be "during the rule of theSughanas", a northern Buddhist kingdom.[11][10] There is no other instance of the name "Shunga" in theepigraphical record of India.[12] The unique inscription reads:
1. Suganam raje raño Gāgīputasa Visadevasa
2. pautena, Gotiputasa Āgarajusa putena
3. Vāchhīputena Dhanabhūtina kāritam toranām
4. silākammamto cha upamno.During the reign of the Sugas (Sughanas, orShungas) the gateway was caused to be made and the stone-work presented by Dhanabhūti, the son of Vāchhī, son ofAgaraju, the son of a Goti and grandson of king Visadeva, the son of Gāgī.
Dhanabhuti was making a major dedication to a Buddhist monument,Bharhut, whereas the historical "Shungas" are known to have beenHindu monarchs, which would suggest that Dhanabhuti himself may not have been a member of the Shunga dynasty.[15] Neither is he known from "Shunga" regnal lists.[15][16] The mention "in the reign of the Shungas" also suggests that he was not himself a Shunga ruler, only that he may have been a tributary of the Shungas, or a ruler in a neighbouring territory, such asKosala orPanchala.[16][15]
The name "Sunga" or "Shunga" is also used in theVishnu Purana, the date of which is contested, to designate the dynasty of kings starting withPushyamitrac. 185 BCE, and ending withDevabhuti circa 75 BCE. According to theVishnu Purana:[8][17][18]
Ten Maurya kings will reign for one hundred and thirty-seven years. After them the Śuṅgas will rule the earth. The general Puṣpamitra will kill his sovereign and usurp the kingdom. His son will be Agnimitra. His son will be Sujyeṣṭha. His son will be Vasumitra. His son will be Ārdraka. His son will be Pulindaka. His son will be Ghoṣavasu. His son will be Vajramitra. His son will be Bhāgavata. His son will be Devabhūti. These ten Śuṅgas will rule the earth for one hundred and twelve years.
— Vishnu Purana, Book Four: The Royal Dynasties.[19]
According to historical reconstructions, the Shunga dynasty was established in 184 BCE, about 50 years afterAshoka's death, when the emperorBrihadratha Maurya, the last ruler of theMaurya Empire, was assassinated by hisSenānī orcommander-in-chief,Pushyamitra,[20] while he was reviewing the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pushyamitra then ascended the throne.[21][22]
Pushyamitra became the ruler ofMagadha and neighbouring territories. His realm essentially covered the central parts of the oldMauryan Empire.[23] The Shunga definitely had control of the central city ofAyodhya in northern central India, as is proved by theDhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription.[23] However, the city ofMathura further west never seems to have been under the direct control of the Shungas, as no archaeological evidence of a Shunga presence has ever been found in Mathura.[24] On the contrary, according to theYavanarajya inscription, Mathura was probably under the control ofIndo-Greeks from some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so as late as 70 BCE.[24]
Some ancient sources however claim a greater extent for the Shunga empire: theAsokavadana account of theDivyavadana claims that the Shungas sent an army to persecute Buddhist monks as far asSakala (Sialkot) in thePunjab region in the northwest:
... Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to theKukkutarama (inPataliputra). ... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed thesangharama, killed the monks there, and departed. ... After some time, he arrived inSakala, and proclaimed that he would give a ... reward to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk.[25]: 293
Also, theMalavikagnimitra claims that the empire of Pushyamitra extended to theNarmada River in the south. They may also have controlled the city ofUjjain.[23] Meanwhile,Kabul and much of the Punjab passed into the hands of theIndo-Greeks and theDeccan Plateau to theSatavahana dynasty.
Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187–151 BCE). He was succeeded by sonAgnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of India's greatest playwrights,Kālidāsa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story takes place.
The power of the Shungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Shunga emperors. The Shungas were succeeded by theKanva dynasty around 73 BCE.
Following the Mauryans, the first Sunga emperor, a Brahmin named Pushyamitra,[26] is believed by some historians to have persecuted Buddhists and contributed to a resurgence ofBrahmanism that forced Buddhism outwards toKashmir,Gandhara andBactria.[27] Buddhist scripture such as theAshokavadana account of theDivyavadana and ancient Tibetan historianTaranatha have written about persecution of Buddhists. Pushyamitra is said to have burned down Buddhist monasteries, destroyed stupas, massacred Buddhist monks and put rewards on their heads, but some consider these stories as probable exaggerations.[27][28]
"... Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama. ... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed. ... After some time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a ... reward to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk."
— Asokavadana account of theDivyavadana[29]: 293
Pushyamitra is known to have revived the supremacy of theBramahnical religion and reestablished animal sacrifices (Yajnas) that had been prohibited byAshoka.[28] However, in theHarshacharita ofBanabhatta, Pushyamitra is referred to as anAnarya (non-Aryan).[citation needed]
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Later Shunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa atBharhut.[30] During his reign the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut andSanchi were renovated and further improved. There is enough evidence to show thatPushyamitra patronised Buddhist art.[31] However, given the rather decentralised and fragmentary nature of the Shunga state, with many cities actually issuing their own coinage, as well as the relative dislike of the Shungas for the Buddhist religion, some authors argue that the constructions of that period in Sanchi for example cannot really be called "Shunga". They were not the result of royal sponsorship, in contrast with what happened during the Mauryas, and most of the dedications at Sanchi were private or collective, rather than the result of royal patronage.[32]
Some writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism[27] in theGangetic plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings.[citation needed]
Some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Shunga emperors were not intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Shunga emperors. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Shunga period can also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found atTamralipti and is on exhibit at theAsutosh Museum in Kolkata.
Two dedications by a king namedBrahmamitra as well as the monarch Indragnimitra are recorded at theMahabodhi Temple inBodh Gaya. Some may claim these show Shunga support for Buddhism. These kings, however, are essentially unknown, and do not form a part of the Shunga recorded genealogy. They are thought to be post-Ashokan and to belong to the period of Shunga rule.[33][34] ABrahmamitra is known otherwise as a local ruler ofMathura, but Indragnimitra is unknown, and according to some authors, Indragnimitra is in fact not even mentioned as a king in the actual inscription.[34][35]
Cunningham has regretted the loss of the latter part of these important records. As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven Brahmi letters after "Kuramgiye danam", the first nine of which read "rajapasada-cetika sa". Bloch reads these nine letters as "raja-pasada-cetikasa" and translates this expression in relation to the preceding words:
"(the gift of Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra and the mother of living sons), "to the caitya (cetika) of the noble temple", taking the word raja before pasada as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing the temple as a particularly large and stately building similar to such expressions as rajahastin 'a noble elephant', rajahamsa 'a goose' (as distinguished from hamsa 'a duck'), etc."
Cunningham has translated the expression "the royal palace, the caitya", suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada would seem to connect the donor with the king's family." Luders doubtfully suggests "to the king's temple" as a rendering of "raja-pasada-cetikasa."
On the basis ofAshokavadana, it is claimed that the stupa may have been vandalised at one point sometime in the 2nd century BCE, an event some have related to the rise of the Shunga emperor Pushyamitra who overtook the Mauryan empire as an army general. It has been suggested that Pushyamitra may have destroyed the original stupa, and his sonAgnimitra rebuilt it.[38] The original brick stupa was covered with stone during the Shunga period.
During the later rule of the Shunga, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to almost twice its original size. The dome was flattened near the top and crowned by three superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was a symbol of thedharma, the Wheel of the Law. The dome was set on a high circular drum meant forcircumambulation, which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone pathway at ground level was enclosed by a stone balustrade. The railing around Stupa 1 do not have artistic reliefs. These are only slabs, with some dedicatory inscriptions. These elements are dated toc. 150 BCE.[39]
The buildings which seem to have been commissioned during the rule of the Shungas are the Second and Thirdstupas (but not the highly decorated gateways, which are from the followingSatavahana period, as known from inscriptions), and the ground balustrade and stone casing of the Great Stupa (Stupa No 1). TheRelics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana are said to have been placed in Stupa No 3.[40] These are dated toc. 115 BCE for the medallions, 80 BCE for the gateway carvings,[41] slightly after the reliefs ofBharhut, with some reworks down to the 1st century CE.[39][41]
The style of the Shunga period decorations at Sanchi bear a close similarity to those ofBharhut, as well as the peripheral balustrades atBodh Gaya, which are thought to be the oldest of the three.
| Shunga structures and decorations (150-80 BCE) | |
 Great Stupa (Stupa expansion and balustrades only are Shunga). Undecorated ground railings dated to approximately 150 BCE.[39] |
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Stupa No 2 Entirely Shunga work. The reliefs are thought to date to the last quarter of the 2nd century BCE (c. 115 BCE for the medallions, 80 BCE for the gateway carvings),[41] slightly after the reliefs ofBharhut, with some reworks down to the 1st century CE.[39][41] |
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 Stupa No 3 (Stupa and balustrades only are Shunga). |
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War and conflict characterised the Shunga period. They are known to have warred with theKalingas,Satavahanas, theIndo-Greeks, and possibly thePanchalas andMathuras.[citation needed]
The Shunga empire's wars with the Indo-Greek kingdom figure greatly in the history of this period. From around 180 BCE theGreco-Bactrian rulerDemetrius conquered the Kabul Valley and is theorised to have advanced into the trans-Indus to confront the Shungas.[28] The Indo-GreekMenander I is credited with either joining or leading a campaign toPataliputra with other Indian rulers; however, very little is known about the exact nature and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars remains uncertain.[citation needed]
Several works, such as theMahabharata and theYuga Purana describe the conflict between the Shungas and the Indo-Greeks.
Scriptures such as theAshokavadana claim that Pushyamitra toppled EmperorBrihadratha and killed many Buddhist monks.[47] Then it describes how Pushyamitra sent an army toPataliputra and as far as Sakala (Sialkot), in thePunjab, to persecute Buddhist monks.[48]
TheIndo-Greeks, calledYavanas in Indian sources, either led byDemetrius I orMenander I, then invaded India, possibly receiving the help of Buddhists.[49] Menander in particular is described as a convert to Buddhism in theMilindapanha.
The Hindu text of theYuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy,[50][note 1] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the Shunga capitalPataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according toMegasthenes,[52] and describes the impending war for city:
Then, after having approachedSaketa together with thePanchalas and theMathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja "the town of the flower-standard",Pataliputra. Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud-walls cast down, all the realm will be in disorder
— Yuga Purana, Paragraph 47–48, 2002 edition)
However, the Yuga Purana indicates that the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) did not remain for long in Pataliputra, as they were faced with a civil war inBactria.
Western sources also suggest that this new offensive of the Greeks into India led them as far as the capitalPataliputra:[53]
Those who came afterAlexander went to theGanges andPataliputra
— Strabo, 15.698
An account of a direct battle between the Greeks and the Shunga is also found in theMālavikāgnimitram, a play byKālidāsa which describes a battle between a squadron of Greek cavalrymen andVasumitra, the grandson ofPushyamitra, accompanied by a hundred soldiers on the "Sindhu river", in which the Indians defeated a squadron of Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed theAshvamedha Yagna.[54] This river may be theIndus River in the northwest, but such expansion by the Shungas is unlikely, and it is more probable that the river mentioned in the text is theSindh River or theKali Sindh River in theGanges Basin.[55]
Ultimately, Shunga rule seems to have extended to the area of Ayodhya. Shunga inscriptions are known as far asAyodhya in northern central India;[23] in particular, theDhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription refers to a local kingDhanadeva, who claimed to be the sixth descendant of Pushyamitra. The inscription also records that Pushyamitra performed twoAshvamedhas (victory sacrifices) in Ayodhya.[56]
The Greeks seem to have maintained control of Mathura. TheYavanarajya inscription, also called the "Maghera inscription", discovered inMathura, suggests that the Indo-Greeks were in control of Mathura during the 1st century BCE.[57][58] The inscription is important in that it mentions the date of its dedication as "The last day of year 116 ofYavana hegemony (Yavanarajya)". It is considered that this inscription is attesting the control of theIndo-Greeks in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE in Mathura, a fact that is also confirmed by numismatic and literary evidence.[24] Moreover, it does not seem that the Shungas ever ruled in Mathura orSurasena since no Shunga coins or inscriptions have been found there.[24]
TheAnushasana Parva of theMahabharata affirms that the city of Mathura was under the joint control of theYavanas and theKambojas.[59]
Later however, it seems the city of Mathura was retaken from them, if not by the Shungas themselves, then probably by other indigenous rulers such as theDatta dynasty or theMitra dynasty, or more probably by theIndo-ScythianNorthern Satraps underRajuvula. In the region of Mathura, theArjunayanas andYaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas"), and during the 1st century BCE, theTrigartas,Audumbaras and finally theKunindas also started to mint their own coins, thus affirming independence from the Indo-Greeks, although the style of their coins was often derived from that of the Indo-Greeks.
Very little can be said with great certainty. However, what does appear clear is that the two realms appeared to have established normalised diplomatic relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective rulers. The Indo-Greeks and the Shungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by theHeliodorus pillar, which records the dispatch of a Greek ambassador namedHeliodorus, from the court of theIndo-Greek kingAntialcidas, to the court of the Shunga emperorBhagabhadra at the site ofVidisha in centralIndia.
After the death of Agnimitra, the second king of the dynasty, the empire rapidly disintegrated:[6] inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.[7]
The last king of Sungas,Devabhuti was assassinated by his ministerVasudeva Kanva, who then establishedKanva dynasty.[21] According to the Puranas: "TheAndhraSimuka will assail theKanvayanas and Susarman, and destroy the remains of the Sungas' power and will obtain this earth."[60] TheAndhras did indeed destroy the last remains of the Sunga state in central India somewhere around Vidisha,[61] probably as a feeble rump state.
The Shunga art style differed somewhat from imperialMauryan art, which was influenced byPersian art. In both, continuing elements of folk art and cults of theMother goddess appear in popular art, but are now produced with more skill in more monumental forms. The Shunga style was thus seen as 'more Indian' and is often described as the more indigenous.[62]
Art, education, philosophy, and other learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhashya were composed in this period. It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and romanticised the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue.
Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school, which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school (Greco-Buddhist art) of Afghanistan and North-Western frontier of India (modern day Pakistan).
During the historical Shunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions that were done at thestupas ofSanchi andBharhut, originally started under Emperor Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Shungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.
| Shunga statuettes and reliefs |
|
The script used by the Shunga was a variant ofBrahmi, and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The script is thought to be an intermediary between theMaurya and theKalinga Brahmi scripts.[63]
| Shunga coinage |
|
| Emperor | Reign |
|---|---|
| Pushyamitra | 185–149 BCE |
| Agnimitra | 149–141 BCE |
| Vasujyeshtha | 141–131 BCE |
| Vasumitra | 131–124 BCE |
| Bhadraka | 124–122 BCE |
| Pulindaka | 122–119 BCE |
| Ghosha or Vajramitra | 119–114 BCE |
| Bhagabhadra | 114–83 BCE |
| Devabhuti | 83–73 BCE |
Pushyamitra Sunga, himself a Brahmana,...
The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in the dominions of the Prasians [...] Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched in the inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all round, which was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the wall was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates. (Arr. Ind. 10. 'Of Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians')
Some Newly Discovered Inscriptions from Mathura : The Meghera Well Stone Inscription of Yavanarajya Year 160 Recently a stone inscription was acquired in the Government Museum, Mathura.
| Preceded by | Magadha dynasties | Succeeded by |
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