| Siege of Budapest | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theBudapest Offensive(Eastern Front ofWorld War II) | |||||||
 A Soviet soldier writing "Budapest" in Russian on a signpost after the siege | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 Germany Hungary(Szálasi government) |  Soviet Union Romania Hungary(Debrecen government [ru]) | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch (POW)Gerhard Schmidhuber †Dezső LászlóIván Hindy (POW) | Rodion MalinovskyFyodor TolbukhinNicolae Șova [ro] | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
In the city:[1]
|
| ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
3 November–15 February: 137,000 men[4]
Relief attempts:
| 3 November–11 February: 100,000 – 160,000[5] | ||||||
| 76,000 civilians dead[6] 38,000 civilians died in the siege (7,000 executed) 38,000 died in labour or POW camps | |||||||
 | |||||||
TheSiege of Budapest orBattle of Budapest was the 50-day-long encirclement bySoviet andRomanian forces of the Hungarian capital ofBudapest, near the end ofWorld War II. Part of the broaderBudapest Offensive, the siege began when Budapest, defended byHungarian andGerman troops, was encircled on 26 December 1944 by theRed Army and theRomanian Army. During the siege, about 38,000 civilians died through starvation, military action, and mass executions of Jews by the far-right Hungarian nationalistArrow Cross Party.[7][8] The city unconditionally surrendered on 13 February 1945. It was astrategic victory for theAllies in their push towardsBerlin.[9]
Having suffered nearly 200,000 deaths in three years fighting theSoviet Union, and with the front lines approaching its own cities, Hungary was by early 1944 ready to exitWorld War II. As political forces within Hungary pushed for an end to the fighting, Germany preemptively launchedOperation Margarethe on 19 March 1944, and entered Hungary.
In October 1944, after successive Allied victories atNormandy andFalaise, and after the collapse of the Eastern Front following the stunning success of the Soviet summer offensive,Operation Bagration, Regent of HungaryMiklós Horthy again attempted to negotiate a separate peace with theAllies. Upon hearing of Horthy's efforts, Hitler launchedOperation Panzerfaust to keep Hungary on the Axis side, and forced Horthy to abdicate. Horthy and his government were replaced by the far-rightNational SocialistArrow Cross Party, led by "Hungarist"Ferenc Szálasi. As the new ultra-nationalist government and its German allies prepared the defense of the capital,IX SS Mountain Corps, consisting of twoWaffen-SS divisions, was sent to Budapest to strengthen the city's defense.
The besieging Soviet forces were part ofRodion Malinovsky's2nd Ukrainian Front. Formations that actually took part in the fighting appear to have included the53rd Army,7th Guards Army, portions of the3rd Ukrainian Front, including the46th Army, and the Romanian7th Army Corps.[9]
Arrayed against the Soviets was a collection ofGerman Army (Heer),Waffen-SS andHungarian Army forces. The Siege of Budapest was one of the bloodiest sieges of World War II.
The Red Army started its offensive against the city on 29 October 1944. More than 1,000,000 men, split into two operatingmaneuver groups, advanced. The plan was to isolate Budapest from the rest of the German and Hungarian forces. On 7 November 1944, Soviet and Romanian troops entered the eastern suburbs, 20 kilometers from the old town. The Red Army, after a much-needed pause in operations, resumed its offensive on 19 December. On 26 December, a road linking Budapest toVienna was seized by Soviet troops, thereby completing the encirclement. The Nazi-supported "Leader of the Nation" (Nemzetvezető),Ferenc Szálasi, had already fled from the city on 9 December.
As a result of the Soviet link-up, nearly 33,000 German and 37,000 Hungarian soldiers, as well as over 800,000 civilians, became trapped within the city. Refusing to authorize a withdrawal,Adolf Hitler had declared Budapest a fortress city (Festung Budapest), which was to be defended to the last man.Waffen SS GeneralKarl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, the commander of theIX Waffen SS Alpine Corps, was put in charge of the city's defenses.
Budapest was a major target forJoseph Stalin. TheYalta Conference was approaching, and Stalin wanted to display his full strength toWinston Churchill andFranklin D. Roosevelt. He therefore ordered GeneralRodion Malinovsky to seize the city without delay.[10]
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During the night of 28 December 1944, the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Front contacted the besieged Germans by radios and loudspeakers, and told them about a negotiation for the city'scapitulation. The Soviets promised to provide humane surrender conditions and not to mistreat the German and Hungarian prisoners.[12] They also promised that the emissaries' groups would not bring weapons and would appear in cars with white flags.
The next day, two groups of Soviet emissaries appeared as expected. What happened to them later is unclear,(see here) but both leaders of the groups died. One possible version of the events is recounted below.
The first, belonging to the 3rd Ukrainian Front, arrived at 10:00 AM in theBudafok sector and was taken to the headquarters of General Pfeffer-Wildenbruch. Their negotiating effort was a failure; Pfeffer-Wildenbruch refused the surrender conditions and sent the Soviet agents back to the battlefield. While the emissaries wereen route to their camps, the Germans suddenly opened fire, killing Captain I. A. Ostapenko. Lieutenant N. F. Orlov and Sergeant Ye. T. Gorbatyuk quickly jumped into a trench and narrowly escaped. Owing to heavy German fire, the Soviets were not able to retrieve Ostapenko's body until the night of 29 December. He was buried at Budafok with full military honors.[13][14][15]
The second group of emissaries belonged to the 2nd Ukrainian Front and arrived at 11:00 AM in the Kispest sector. When the emissaries arrived, the German garrison fired at them. The leader of the emissaries, Captain Miklós Steinmetz, appealed for a negotiation, but to no avail. He was killed together with his two subordinates when the German fire struck the Soviet car.[13][16]
The Soviet offensive began in the eastern suburbs, advancing throughPest, making good use of the large central avenues to speed up their progress. The German and Hungarian defenders, overwhelmed, tried to trade space for time to slow down the Soviet advance. They ultimately withdrew to shorten their lines, hoping to take advantage of the hilly nature ofBuda. In January 1945, the Germans launched a three-part counter-offensive codenamedOperation Konrad. This was a joint German-Hungarian effort to relieve the encircled garrison of Budapest. Operation Konrad I was launched on 1 January. The GermanIV SS Panzer Corps attacked fromTata through hilly terrain north-west of Budapest in an effort to break the siege. On 3 January, the Soviet command sent four more divisions to meet the threat, and recalled the Romanian divisions on 15 January because of their inefficiency. This Soviet action stopped the offensive nearBicske, less than 20 kilometers west of Budapest. The Germans were forced to withdraw on 12 January. They then launched Operation Konrad II on 7 January. The IV SS Panzer Corps attacked fromEsztergom toward Budapest Airport to capture it and improve ability to supply the city by air. This offensive was halted near the airport.
Street fighting in Budapest increased in intensity. Supply became a decisive factor because of the loss of theFerihegy airport on 27 December 1944, just before the start of the siege. Until 9 January 1945, German troops were able to use some of the main avenues as well as the park next toBuda Castle as landing zones foraircraft andgliders, although they were under constant artillery fire from the Soviets. Before theDanube froze, some supplies could be sent onbarges, under the cover of darkness and fog. Food shortages were more and more common and soldiers had to rely on finding their own sources of sustenance, some even resorting to eating their horses. The extreme temperatures also affected German and Hungarian troops. Soviet troops quickly found themselves in the same situation as the Germans had inStalingrad. They were able to take advantage of the urban terrain by relying heavily on snipers and sappers to advance.
Fighting broke out in thesewers, as both sides used them for troop movements. Six Sovietmarines even managed to get to Castle Hill and capture a German officer before returning to their own lines – still underground. Such feats were rare because of ambushes in the sewers set up by theAxis troops using local inhabitants as guides. In mid-January,Csepel Island was taken, along with its military factories, which were still producingPanzerfausts andshells, even under Soviet fire. Meanwhile, in Pest, the situation for the Axis forces deteriorated, with thegarrison facing the risk of being cut in half by the advancing Soviet troops. On 17 January 1945, Hitler agreed to withdraw the remaining troops from Pest to try to defend Buda. All five bridges spanning theDanube were clogged with traffic, evacuating troops and civilians. German troops destroyed the bridges 18 January, despite protests from Hungarian officers. One of them was the famousChain Bridge, dating from 1849.
On 18 January 1945, the IV SS Panzer Corps, whose relocation to the region north-east of Lake Balaton had been completed on the previous day, was again thrown into battle. This was Operation Konrad III. In two days the German tanks reached theDanube at Dunapentele, tearing the Soviet Transdanubian front apart, and by 26 January the offensive had reached a point roughly 25 kilometers from the ring around the capital.
Stalin ordered his troops to hold their ground at all costs, and twoArmy Corps that were dispatched to assault Budapest were hastily moved to the south of the city to counter the German offensive. German troops got to less than 20 kilometres from the city but were unable to maintain their impetus due to fatigue and supply problems. Budapest's defenders asked permission to leave the city and escape the encirclement. Hitler refused.
German troops could no longer hold their ground; they were forced to withdraw on 28 January 1945, and to abandon much of the occupied territory with the notable exception ofSzékesfehérvár. The fate of the defenders of Budapest was sealed.
UnlikePest, which is built on flat terrain,Buda was built on hills. This allowed the defenders to site artillery and fortifications above the attackers, greatly slowing the Soviet advance. The main citadel, (Gellért Hill), was defended byWaffen-SS troops who successfully repelled several Soviet assaults. Nearby, Soviet and German forces were fighting for the city cemetery amongst shell-opened tombs; it would last for several days.
The fighting onMargaret Island, in the middle of the Danube, was particularly merciless. The island was still attached to the rest of the city by the remaining half of the Margaret Bridge and was used as a parachute drop zone as well as for covering improvised airstrips set up in the city center. The 25th Guards Rifle Division operated from the Soviet side in combat on the island (for losses see below).
On 11 February 1945, Gellért Hill finally fell after six weeks of fighting when the Soviets launched a heavy attack from three directions simultaneously. Soviet artillery was able to dominate the entire city and to shell the remaining Axis defenders, who were concentrated in less than two square kilometres and suffering from malnutrition and disease.
Despite the lack of supplies, the Axis troops refused to surrender and defended every street and house. By this time, some captured Hungarian soldiers defected and fought on the Soviet side. They were known collectively as the "Volunteer Regiment of Buda".
After capturing thesouthern railway station during a two-day bloodbath, Soviet troops advanced to Castle Hill. On 10 February, after a violent assault, Soviet marines established a bridgehead on Castle Hill, while almost cutting the remaining garrison in half.
Hitler still forbade the German commander, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, to abandon Budapest or to attempt a breakout. But the glider flights (DFS 230) bringing in supplies had ended a few days earlier and parachute drops had also been discontinued.
In desperation, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch decided to lead the remnants of his troops out of Budapest. The German commander did not typically consult the Hungarian commander of the city. However, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch now uncharacteristically included GeneralIván Hindy in this last desperate breakout attempt.
On the night of 11 February, some 28,000 German and Hungarian troops began to stream north-westwards away from Castle Hill. They moved in three waves. Thousands of civilians were with each wave. Entire families, pushing prams, trudged through the snow and ice. Unfortunately for the would-be escapees, the Soviets awaited them in prepared positions around theSzéll Kálmán tér area.
Troops, along with the civilians, used heavy fog to their advantage. The first wave managed to surprise the waiting Soviet soldiers and artillery; their sheer numbers allowed many to escape. The second and third waves were less fortunate. Soviet artillery and rocket batteries bracketed the escape area, with deadly results that killed thousands. Despite heavy losses, five to ten thousand people managed to reach the wooded hills northwest of Budapest and escape towards Vienna, but only 600–700 German and Hungarian soldiers reached the main German lines from Budapest.[9][17]
The majority of the escapees were killed, wounded, or captured by the Soviet troops. Pfeffer-Wildenbruch and Hindy were captured by waiting Soviet troops as they emerged from a tunnel running from the Castle District.
The remaining defenders finally surrendered 13 February 1945. German and Hungarian military losses were high, with entire divisions having been eliminated. The Germans lost all or most of the13th Panzer Division,60th Panzergrenadier DivisionFeldherrnhalle,8th SS Cavalry DivisionFlorian Geyer and the22nd SS Volunteer Cavalry DivisionMaria Theresa. The Hungarian I Corps was virtually annihilated, as well as the 10th and 12th Infantry Divisions and the 1st Armored Division.
The Soviet forces suffered between 100,000 and 160,000 casualties. The Soviets claimed that they had trapped 180,000 German and Hungarian 'fighters' in the pocket, and declared they had captured 110,000 of these soldiers. However, immediately after the siege, they rounded up thousands of Hungarian civilians and added them to the prisoner-of-war count, allowing the Soviets to validate their previously inflated figures.[18]
Budapest lay in ruins, with more than 80 percent of its buildings destroyed or damaged, with historical buildings like theHungarian Parliament Building and the Castle among them. All seven bridges spanning theDanube were destroyed.
In January 1945, 32,000 ethnicGermans from within Hungary were arrested and transported to the Soviet Union as forced laborers. In some villages, the entire adult population were taken to labor camps in theDonets Basin.[19][20] Many died there as a result of hardship and ill-treatment. Overall, more than 500,000 Hungarians were transported to the Soviet Union (including between 100,000 and 170,000 Hungarian ethnic Germans).[21]
With the exception ofOperation Spring Awakening (Unternehmen Frühlingserwachen), which was launched in March 1945, the Siege of Budapest was the last major operation on the southern front for the Germans. The siege further depleted theWehrmacht and especially theWaffen-SS. For the Soviet troops, the Siege of Budapest was a final rehearsal before theBattle of Berlin. It also allowed the Soviets to launch theVienna Offensive. On 13 April 1945, exactly two months after the surrender of Budapest, Vienna fell.[22]
Raoul Wallenberg, Sweden'sspecial envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944, had issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildingsdesignated as Swedish territory, saving tens of thousands of lives.[23] On January 17, 1945,[24] Wallenberg, who allegedly had links with British, American and Swedish intelligence,[25] was detained by Soviet authorities and taken to Moscow with his Hungarian driver, Vilmos Langfelder. He subsequentlydisappeared in theUSSR and his fate is still unknown.[25]
After the city's surrender, occupying troops forcibly conscripted all able-bodied Hungarian men and youth to build pontoon bridges across the Danube River. For weeks afterward, especially after the spring thaw, bloated bodies piled up against these same pontoons and bridge pylons.[18]
According toKrisztián Ungváry, some 38,000 civilians died during the siege: about 13,000 from military action and 25,000 from starvation, disease and other causes. Of this number, 15,000 were killed in mass executions of Jews by the far-right Hungarian nationalistArrow Cross Party.[7][8] Although the Soviet staff gave orders prohibiting ill-treatment of prisoners of war and civilians to almost every unit[26] after the end of hostilities Budapest was flooded by Sovietdeserters,[27] and excesses such as looting and mass rape were carried out by Soviets.[28] Despite the fact that the Soviets often took children and entire families under their protection and had a taboo on hurting children,[29] a high number of women and girls were raped,[30][31][a] although estimates vary from 5,000 to 200,000.[33]Norman Naimark argues that Hungarian girls were kidnapped and taken to Red Army quarters, where they were imprisoned, repeatedly raped and sometimes murdered.[34][35]
The events in theNaphegy andKrisztinaváros neighborhoods of Budapest are told in a few surviving diaries and memoirs. Charles Farkas (Farkas Karoly) was born in 1926 and includes his experience during the siege in his memoirVanished by the Danube: Peace, War, Revolution, and Flight to the West. László Dezső, a 15-year-old boy in 1944, lived at 32 Mészáros Street with his family. This area was heavily attacked because of its proximity to theSouthern Railway Station (Déli pályaudvar) and the strategic importance of the hill. Dezső kept a diary throughout the siege.[36] The memoirs of András Németh also describe the siege and the bombing of the empty school buildings which he and his fellow soldiers used as an observation post.[37]
The memoirs of Heinz Landau,Goodbye Transylvania, present a German soldier's view of the battle.Pinball Games: Arts of Survival in Nazi and Communist Eras, written by George F. Eber, a richly detailed account of a 20-year-old Hungarian and his family living through the siege, was published posthumously in 2010.[38] It chronicles the clever strategies employed for survival and outlined the boredom and terror of a family that was trapped, but would not capitulate. Eber, who had become an internationally known architect, included sketches with the memoir. One of them depicts a Russian soldier silhouetted against a Budapest wall on the first night the Germans were driven out of his neighborhood. The memoir also includes an account of World War II and the post-war transition of the country into Soviet-style Communism.
The memoirs of the 14-year-old dispatch runner of the Vannay Volunteer Battalion,Ervin Y. Galantay, give an insight into the battle and urban combat. The diary of the young runner describes day-to-day life and survival of both civilians and soldiers. It was published in English by the Militaria press in Budapest in 2005, under the titleBoy Soldier.
Joseph Szentkiralyi, who had worked in the United States prior to World War II, had been deported to Hungary as anenemy alien after the war began. During the siege, he and his family endured constant artillery bombardment and street-by-street tank and infantry battles between the Germans, the remnants of theRoyal Hungarian Army, and the attacking Romanian, and Soviet forces. Szentkiralyi, wanted for questioning by Hungarian army officers, hid on the upper floors of buildings during bombing raids to avoid capture. To prevent starvation and help keep their families alive, Szentkiralyi and others risked their lives to leave their bomb shelters at night and butcher frozen horse carcasses they found in the streets. At the end, daily rations consisted of melted snow, horse meat, and 150 grams of bread. Szentkiralyi worked for the Allies after the war ended. Learning that he faced imminent arrest, he fled to Switzerland to avoid detention and likely execution by the Soviets.[39]
Советское командование стремилось избежать ненужного кровопролития, сохранить для венгерского народа все то, что было создано руками замечательных мастеров прошлого. 29 декабря противнику, окруженному в Будапеште, были направлены ультиматумы командования 2-го и 3-го Украинских фронтов, предусматривавшие гуманные условия капитуляции. Венгерским генералам, офицерам и солдатам гарантировалось, например, немедленное возвращение домой. Но парламентер 2-го Украинского фронта капитан М. Штейнмец был встречен огнем и убит, а парламентеру 3-го Украинского фронта капитану И. А. Остапенко от-ветили отказом капитулировать и при возвращении выстрелили в спину.
...who saved the lives of tens of thousands of Jews in Budapest during World War II ... and put some 15,000 Jews into 32 safe houses.
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