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| Saturnalia | |
|---|---|
 Saturnalia (1783) byAntoine-François Callet, showing his interpretation of what the Saturnalia might have looked like | |
| Observed by | Romans |
| Type | Classical Roman religion |
| Significance | Public festival |
| Celebrations | Feasting, role reversals, gift-giving, gambling |
| Observances | Public sacrifice and banquet for the god Saturn; universal wearing of thepileus |
| Date | 17–23 December |
Saturnalia is anancient Roman festival andholiday in honour of thegodSaturn, held on 17 December in theJulian calendar and later expanded with festivities until 19 December. By the 1st century BC, the celebration had been extended until 23 December, for a total of seven days of festivities.[1] The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at theTemple of Saturn, in theRoman Forum, and a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and acarnival atmosphere that overturnedRoman social norms:gambling was permitted, and masters provided table service for theirslaves as it was seen as a time of liberty for both slaves and freedmen alike.[2] A common custom was the election of a "King of the Saturnalia", who gave orders to people, which were followed and presided over the merrymaking. The gifts exchanged were usuallygag gifts or small figurines made of wax or pottery known assigillaria. The poetCatullus called it "the best of days".[3]
Saturnalia was the Roman equivalent to the earlier Greek holiday ofKronia, which was celebrated during theAttic month of Hekatombaion in late midsummer. It held theological importance for some Romans, who saw it as a restoration of the ancientGolden Age, when the world was ruled by Saturn. TheNeoplatonist philosopherPorphyry interpreted the freedom associated with Saturnalia as symbolizing the "freeing of souls into immortality". Saturnalia may have influenced some of the customs associated with later celebrations in western Europe occurring in midwinter, particularly traditions associated withChristmas, theFeast of the Holy Innocents, andEpiphany. In particular, the historical western European Christmas custom of electing a "Lord of Misrule" may have its roots in Saturnalia celebrations.
InRoman mythology, Saturn was an agricultural deity who was said to have reigned over the world in theGolden Age, when humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in a state ofinnocence. The revelries of Saturnalia were supposed to reflect the conditions of the lost mythical age. The Greek equivalent was theKronia,[5] which was celebrated on the twelfth day of the month of Hekatombaion,[6][5] which occurred from around mid-July to mid-August on theAttic calendar.[5][6]
The Greek writerAthenaeus cites numerous other examples of similar festivals celebrated throughout theGreco-Roman world,[7] including theCretan festival ofHermaia in honor ofHermes, an unnamed festival fromTroezen in honor ofPoseidon, theThessalian festival ofPeloria in honor ofZeus Pelorios, and an unnamed festival fromBabylon.[7] He also mentions that the custom of masters dining with their slaves was associated with the Athenian festival ofAnthesteria and the Spartan festival ofHyacinthia.[7] The Argive festival ofHybristica, though not directly related to the Saturnalia, involved a similar reversal of roles in which women would dress as men and men would dress as women.[7]
The ancient Roman historianJustinus credits Saturn with being a historical king of thepre-Roman inhabitants of Italy:
"The first inhabitants of Italy were the Aborigines, whose king, Saturnus, is said to have been a man of such extraordinary justice, that no one was a slave in his reign, or had any private property, but all things were common to all, and undivided, as one estate for the use of every one; in memory of which way of life, it has been ordered that at the Saturnalia slaves should everywhere sit down with their masters at the entertainments, the rank of all being made equal."
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Although probably the best-known Roman holiday, Saturnalia as a whole is not described from beginning to end in any single ancient source. Modern understanding of the festival is pieced together from several accounts dealing with various aspects.[9] The Saturnalia was the dramatic setting of the multivolume work of that name byMacrobius, a Latin writer fromlate antiquity who is the major source for information about the holiday. Macrobius describes the reign of Justinus's "king Saturn" as "a time of great happiness, both on account of the universal plenty that prevailed and because as yet there was no division into bond and free – as one may gather from the complete license enjoyed by slaves at the Saturnalia."[10] InLucian'sSaturnalia it isChronos himself who proclaims a "festive season, when 'tis lawful to be drunken, and slaves have license to revile their lords".[11]
Another explanation for the holiday is found is the Babylonian Talmud, where it is discussed that the origins of this holiday came from Adam, the first man.[12]
In one of the interpretations in Macrobius's work, Saturnalia is a festival of light leading to thewinter solstice, with the abundant presence of candles symbolizing the quest for knowledge and truth.[13] The renewal of light and the coming of thenew year was celebrated in the laterRoman Empire at theDies Natalis Solis Invicti, the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun", on 25 December.[14]
The popularity of Saturnalia continued into the3rd and4th centuries CE, and as theRoman Empire came under Christian rule, many of its customs were recast into or at least influenced the seasonal celebrations surroundingChristmas and theNew Year.[15][16][17]
Saturnalia underwent a major reform in 217 BC, after theBattle of Lake Trasimene, when the Romans suffered one of their most crushing defeats byCarthage during theSecond Punic War. Until that time, they had celebrated the holiday according to Roman custom(more Romano). It was after a consultation of theSibylline Books that they adopted "Greek rite", introducing sacrifices carried out in the Greek manner, the public banquet, and the continual shouts ofio Saturnalia that became characteristic of the celebration.[18]Cato the Elder (234–149 BC) remembered a time before the so-called "Greek" elements had been added to the Roman Saturnalia.[19]
It was not unusual for the Romans to offer cult(cultus) to the deities of other nations in the hope of redirecting their favour (seeevocatio), and the Second Punic War in particular created pressures on Roman society that led to a number of religious innovations and reforms.[20]Robert E.A. Palmer has argued that the introduction of new rites at this time was in part an effort to appeaseBa'al Hammon, theCarthaginian god who was regarded as the counterpart of the Roman Saturn and GreekCronus.[21] The table service that masters offered their slaves thus would have extended to Carthaginian or African war captives.[22]
The statue of Saturn at his main temple normally had its feet bound in wool, which was removed for the holiday as an act of liberation.[25][26] The official rituals were carried out according to "Greek rite"(ritus graecus). The sacrifice was officiated by a priest,[27] whose head was uncovered; in Roman rite, priests sacrificedcapite velato, with head covered by a special fold of thetoga.[28] This procedure is usually explained by Saturn'sassimilation with his Greek counterpartCronus, since the Romans often adopted and reinterpretedGreek myths, iconography, and even religious practices fortheir own deities, but the uncovering of the priest's head may also be one of the Saturnalian reversals, the opposite of what was normal.[29]
Following the sacrifice theRoman Senate arranged alectisternium, a ritual of Greek origin that typically involved placing a deity's image on a sumptuous couch, as if he were present and actively participating in the festivities. A public banquet followed(convivium publicum).[30][31]
The day was supposed to be a holiday from all forms of work. Schools were closed, and exercise regimens were suspended. Courts were not in session, so no justice was administered, and nodeclaration of war could be made.[32] After the public rituals, observances continuedat home.[33] On 18 and 19 December, which were also holidays from public business, families conducted domestic rituals. They bathed early, and those with means sacrificed asuckling pig, a traditional offering to anearth deity.[34]
Saturn also had a less benevolent aspect. One of his consorts wasLua, sometimes calledLua Saturni ("Saturn's Lua") and identified with Lua Mater, "Mother Destruction", a goddess in whose honor the weapons of enemies killed in war were burned, perhaps in expiation.[37] Saturn'schthonic nature connected him to the underworld and its rulerDīs Pater, the Roman equivalent of GreekPlouton (Pluto in Latin) who was also a god of hidden wealth.[38] In sources of the third century AD and later, Saturn is recorded as receiving deadgladiators as offerings (munera) during or near the Saturnalia.[39] These gladiatorial events, ten days in all throughout December, were presented mainly by thequaestors and sponsored with funds from the treasury of Saturn.[40]
The practice of gladiatormunera was criticized byChristian apologists as a form ofhuman sacrifice. Although there is no evidence of this practice during the Republic, the offering of gladiators led to later theories that the primeval Saturn had demanded human victims in order for Saturnalia to occur. Macrobius says that Dīs Pater was placated with human heads and Saturn with sacrificial victims consisting of men (virorumvictimis).[41][42] In mythic lore, during the visit ofHercules to Italy, the civilizing demigod insisted that the practice be halted and the ritual reinterpreted. Instead of heads to Dīs Pater, the Romans were to offer effigies or masks(oscilla); a mask appears in the representation of Saturnalia in theCalendar of Filocalus. Since the Greek wordphota meant both 'man' and 'lights', candles were a substitute offering to Saturn for the light of life.[35][36] The figurines that were exchanged as gifts (sigillaria) may also have represented token substitutes.[43]
"Meanwhile, the head of the slave household, whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to thePenates, to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic servants, came to tell his master that the household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honor the slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master; and only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to the table."[44]
Saturnalia was characterized by role reversals and behavioral license.[7] Slaves were treated to a banquet of the kind usually enjoyed by their masters.[7] Ancient sources differ on the circumstances: some suggest that master and slave dined together,[45] while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice might have varied over time.[9]
Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to disrespect their masters without the threat of a punishment. It was a time forfree speech: theAugustan poetHorace calls it "December liberty".[46] In twosatires set during the Saturnalia, Horace has a slave offer sharp criticism to his master.[47] Everyone knew, however, that the leveling of thesocial hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end.[48]
Thetoga, the characteristic garment of the male Roman citizen, was set aside in favor of the Greeksynthesis, colourful "dinner clothes" otherwise considered in poor taste for daytime wear.[49] Romans of citizen status normally went about bare-headed, but for the Saturnalia donned thepilleus, the conical felt cap that was the usual mark of a freedman. Slaves, who ordinarily were not entitled to wear thepilleus, wore it as well, so that everyone was "pilleated" without distinction.[50][51]
The participation offreeborn Roman women is implied by sources that name gifts for women, but their presence at banquets may have depended on the custom of their time; from the late Republic onward, women mingled socially with men more freely than they had in earlier times. Female entertainers were certainly present at some otherwise all-male gatherings.[52] Role-playing was implicit in the Saturnalia's status reversals, and there are hints of mask-wearing or "guising".[53][54] No theatrical events are mentioned in connection with the festivities, but the classicistErich Segal sawRoman comedy, with its cast of impudent, free-wheeling slaves and libertine seniors, as imbued with the Saturnalian spirit.[55]
Gambling and dice-playing, normally prohibited or at least frowned upon, were permitted for all, even slaves. Coins and nuts were thestakes. On theCalendar of Philocalus, the Saturnalia is represented by a man wearing a fur-trimmed coat next to a table with dice, and a caption reading: "Now you have license, slave, to game with your master."[56][57] Rampant overeating and drunkenness became the rule, and a sober person the exception.[58]
Seneca looked forward to the holiday, if somewhat tentatively, in a letter to a friend:
"It is now the month of December, when the greatest part of the city is in a bustle. Loose reins are given to public dissipation; everywhere you may hear the sound of great preparations, as if there were some real difference between the days devoted to Saturn and those for transacting business. ... Were you here, I would willingly confer with you as to the plan of our conduct; whether we should eve in our usual way, or, to avoid singularity, both take a better supper and throw off the toga."[59]
Some Romans found it all a bit much.Pliny describes a secluded suite of rooms in hisLaurentinevilla, which he used as a retreat: "... especially during the Saturnalia when the rest of the house is noisy with the licence of the holiday and festive cries. This way I don't hamper the games of my people and they don't hinder my work or studies."[60]
The Sigillaria on 19 December was a day of gift-giving.[61] Because gifts of value would mark social status contrary to the spirit of the season, these were often thepottery or wax figurines calledsigillaria made specially for the day, candles, or "gag gifts", of whichAugustus was particularly fond.[62] Children received toys as gifts.[63] In his many poems about the Saturnalia,Martial names both expensive and quite cheap gifts, including writing tablets, dice,knucklebones, moneyboxes, combs, toothpicks, a hat, a hunting knife, an axe, various lamps, balls,perfumes, pipes, a pig, a sausage, aparrot, tables, cups, spoons, items of clothing, statues, masks, books, and pets.[64] Gifts might be as costly as a slave or exotic animal,[65] but Martial suggests that token gifts of low intrinsic value inversely measure the high quality of a friendship.[66]Patrons or "bosses" might pass along a gratuity(sigillaricium) to their poorer clients or dependents to help them buy gifts. Someemperors were noted for their devoted observance of the Sigillaria.[67]
In a practice that might be compared to moderngreeting cards, verses sometimes accompanied the gifts. Martial has a collection of poems written as if to be attached to gifts.[68][69] Catullus received a book of bad poems by "the worst poet of all time" as a joke from a friend.[70]
Gift-giving was not confined to the day of the Sigillaria. In some households, guests and family members received gifts after the feast in which slaves had shared.[51]
Imperial sources refer to aSaturnalicius princeps ("Ruler of the Saturnalia"), who ruled as master of ceremonies for the proceedings. He was appointed by lot, and has been compared to the medievalLord of Misrule at theFeast of Fools. His capricious commands, such as "Sing naked!" or "Throw him into cold water!", had to be obeyed by the other guests at theconvivium: he creates and (mis)rules a chaotic and absurd world. The future emperorNero is recorded as playing the role in his youth.[72]
Since this figure does not appear in accounts from theRepublican period, theprinceps of the Saturnalia may have developed as a satiric response to the new era of rule by aprinceps, the title assumed by the first emperorAugustus to avoid the hated connotations of the word "king"(rex). Art andliterature under Augustus celebrated his reign as a new Golden Age, but the Saturnalia makes a mockery of a world in which law is determined by one man and the traditional social and political networks are reduced to the power of the emperor over his subjects.[73] In a poem about a lavish Saturnalia underDomitian,Statius makes it clear that the emperor, likeJupiter, still reigns during the temporary return of Saturn.[74]
The phraseio Saturnalia was the characteristic shout or salutation of the festival, originally commencing after the public banquet on the single day of 17 December.[31][23] Theinterjectionio (Greekἰώ,ǐō) is pronounced either with twosyllables (a shorti and a longo) or as a single syllable (with thei becoming the Latinconsonantalj and pronouncedyō). It was a strongly emotive ritual exclamation or invocation, used for instance in announcingtriumph or celebratingBacchus, but also to punctuate a joke.[75]
As an observance of state religion, Saturnalia was supposed to have been held "... quarto decimo Kalendarum Ianuariarum",[76] on the fourteenth day before theKalends of January (1 January), counting inclusively. In the pre-Julian, twenty-nine day December, on the oldestRoman religious calendar,[77] which the Romans believed to have been established by the legendary founderRomulus and his successorNuma Pompilius, Saturnalia would be held on 17 December. It was adies festus, a legal holiday when no public business could be conducted.[23] The day marked the dedication anniversary(dies natalis) of the Temple to Saturn in the Roman Forum in 497 BC.[23][24] WhenJulius Caesar had thecalendar reformed because it had fallen out of synchronization with thesolar year, two days were added to the month, and the date of Saturnalia then changed, still falling on 17 December, but with this now being the sixteenth day before the Kalends, as per the Roman reckoning of dates of this time. It was felt, thus, that the original day had thus been moved by two days, and so Saturnalia was celebrated underAugustus as a three-day official holiday encompassing both dates.[78]
By the lateRepublic, the private festivities of Saturnalia had expanded to seven days,[79][42] but during the Imperial period contracted variously to three to five days.[80]Caligula extended official observances to five.[81]
The date 17 December was the first day of theastrological sign Capricorn, thehouse ofSaturn, the planet named for the god.[82] Its proximity to thewinter solstice (21 to 23 December on the Julian calendar) was endowed with various meanings by both ancient and modern scholars: for instance, the widespread use of wax candles(cerei, singularcereus) could refer to "the returning power of the sun's light after the solstice".[83]
The Saturnalia reflects the contradictory nature of the deity Saturn himself: "There are joyful and utopian aspects of careless well-being side by side with disquieting elements of threat and danger."[69]
As a deity of agricultural bounty, Saturn embodied prosperity and wealth in general. The name of his consortOps meant "wealth, resources". Her festival,Opalia, was celebrated on 19 December. TheTemple of Saturn housed the state treasury (aerarium Saturni) and was the administrative headquarters of thequaestors, the public officials whose duties included oversight of themint. It was among the oldest cult sites in Rome, and had been the location of "a very ancient" altar(ara) even before the building of the first temple in 497 BC.[85][86]
The Romans regarded Saturn as the original andautochthonous ruler of theCapitolium,[87] and the first king ofLatium or even the whole of Italy.[88] At the same time, there was a tradition that Saturn had been an immigrant deity, received byJanus after he was usurped by his sonJupiter (Zeus) and expelled from Greece.[89] His contradictions—a foreigner with one of Rome's oldest sanctuaries, and a god of liberation who is kept in fetters most of the year—indicate Saturn's capacity for obliterating social distinctions.[90]
Roman mythology of the Golden Age of Saturn's reign differed from the Greek tradition. He arrived in Italy "dethroned and fugitive",[91] but brought agriculture and civilization and became a king. As the Augustan poetVirgil described it:
"[H]e gathered together the unruly race [offauns andnymphs] scattered over mountain heights, and gave them laws .... Under his reign were the golden ages men tell of: in such perfect peace he ruled the nations."[92]
The third centuryNeoplatonic philosopherPorphyry took an allegorical view of the Saturnalia. He saw the festival's theme of liberation and dissolution as representing the "freeing of souls into immortality"—an interpretation thatMithraists may also have followed, since they included many slaves and freedmen.[93] According to Porphyry, the Saturnalia occurred near thewinter solstice because the sun entersCapricorn, theastrological house of Saturn, at that time.[94] In theSaturnalia of Macrobius, the proximity of the Saturnalia to the winter solstice leads to an exposition of solarmonotheism, the belief that the Sun (seeSol Invictus) ultimately encompasses all divinities as one.[95]
M.Avodah Zarah lists Saturnalia as a "festival of the gentiles," along with theCalends of January andKratesis.[a][96]B. Avodah Zarah records thatḤanan b. Rava said, "Kalends[b] is held during the eight days after the[winter] solstice and Saturnura[c] begins eight days before the [winter] solstice".[97]Ḥananel b. Ḥushiel,[98] followed byRashi,[99] claims: "Eight days before the solstice -- their festival was for all eight days," which slightly overstates the Saturnalia's historical six-day length, possibly to associate the holiday withHanukkah.[100]
In theJerusalem Talmud,Avodah Zarah claims the etymology of Saturnalia is שנאה טמונהśinʾâ ṭǝmûnâ "hidden hatred," and refers to the hatredEsau, whom the Rabbis believed had fathered Rome, harbored forJacob.[101]
TheBabylonian Talmud'sAvodah Zarah ascribes the origins of Saturnalia (and Kalends) toAdam, who saw that the days were getting shorter and thought it was punishment for his sin:
When theFirst Man saw that the day was continuously shortening, he said, "Woe is me! Because I have sinned, the world darkens around me, and returns to formlessness and void. This is the death to which Heaven has sentenced me!" He decided to spend eight days in fasting and prayer. When he saw the winter solstice, and he saw that the day was continuously lengthening, he said, "It is the order of the world!" He went and feasted for eight days. The following year, he feasted for both. He established them in Heaven's name, but they established them in the name of idolatry.[102]
In the BabylonianAvodah Zarah, this etiology is attributed to thetannaim, but the story is suspiciously similar to the etiology of Kalends attributed by the Jerusalem Avodah Zarah toAbba Arikha.[100]
Unlike several Roman religious festivals which were particular to cult sites in the city, the prolonged seasonal celebration of Saturnalia at home could be held anywhere in the Empire.[103] Saturnalia continued as a secular celebration long after it was removed from the official calendar.[104] AsWilliam Warde Fowler notes: "[Saturnalia] has left its traces and found its parallels in great numbers of medieval and modern customs, occurring about the time of the winter solstice."[105]
Thedate of Jesus's birth is unknown.[106][107] A spurious correspondence between Cyril of Jerusalem andPope Julius I (337–352), quoted by John of Nikiu in the 9th century, is sometimes given as a source for a claim that, in the fourth century AD,Pope Julius I decreed that the birth of Jesus be celebrated on 25 December.[108][109] Some speculate that the date was chosen to create a Christian replacement or alternative to Saturnalia[106] and the birthday festival ofSol Invictus, held on 25 December.[107] Around AD 200,Tertullian had berated Christians for continuing to celebrate the pagan Saturnalia festival.[110] The Church may have hoped to attract more converts to Christianity by allowing them to continue to celebrate on the same day.[107] The Church may have also been influenced by the idea that Jesus was conceived and died on the same date;[107] Jesus died during Passover and, in the third century AD, Passover was celebrated on 25 March.[107] The Church may have calculated Jesus's birthday as nine months later, on 25 December.[107] But in fact the correspondence is spurious.[108]
_-_Twelfth-night_(The_King_Drinks)_-_WGA22083.jpg)
As a result of the close proximity of dates, many Christians in western Europe continued to celebrate traditional Saturnalia customs in association with Christmas and the surrounding holidays.[106][111][16] Like Saturnalia, Christmas during theMiddle Ages was a time of ruckus, drinking, gambling, and overeating.[16] The tradition of theSaturnalicius princeps was particularly influential.[111][16] In medieval France and Switzerland, a boy would be elected "bishop for a day" on 28 December (theFeast of the Holy Innocents)[111][16] and would issue decrees much like theSaturnalicius princeps.[111][16] The boy bishop's tenure ended during the eveningvespers.[112] This custom was common across western Europe, but varied considerably by region;[112] in some places, the boy bishop's orders could become quite rowdy and unrestrained,[112] but, in others, his power was only ceremonial.[112] In some parts of France, during the boy bishop's tenure, the actual clergy would wear masks or dress in women's clothing, a reversal of roles in line with the traditional character of Saturnalia.[16]
During thelate medieval period and earlyRenaissance, many towns in England elected a "Lord of Misrule" at Christmas time to preside over theFeast of Fools.[111][16] This custom was sometimes associated with theTwelfth Night orEpiphany.[113] A common tradition in western Europe was to drop abean, coin, or other small token into a cake or pudding;[111] whoever found the object would become the "King (or Queen) of the Bean".[111] During theProtestant Reformation, reformers sought to revise or even completely abolish such practices, which they regarded as "popish";[16] these efforts were largely successful.[16][114] The Puritans banned the "Lord of Misrule" in England[114] and the custom was largely forgotten shortly thereafter, though the bean in the pudding survived as a tradition of a small gift to the one finding a single almond hidden in the traditional Christmas porridge in Scandinavia.[114][115]
Nonetheless, in the middle of the nineteenth century, some of the old ceremonies, such as gift-giving, were revived in English-speaking countries as part of a widespread "Christmas revival".[16][114][116] During this revival, authors such asCharles Dickens sought to reform the "conscience of Christmas" and turn the formerly riotous holiday into a family-friendly occasion.[116] Vestiges of the Saturnalia festivities may still be preserved in some of the traditions now associated with Christmas.[16][117] The custom of gift-giving at Christmas time resembles the Roman tradition of givingsigillaria[117] and the lighting ofAdvent candles resembles the Roman tradition of lighting torches and wax tapers.[117][111] Likewise, Saturnalia and Christmas both share associations with eating, drinking, singing, and dancing.[117][111]
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