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| Samo | |
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| Rex Sclavorum ("King of the Slavs") | |
%2c_S%25C3%25A1mo_(2).jpg) Samo statue at Náklo hill nearDubňany | |
| Reign | 623–658 |
| Born | c. 600 "Senonian country" (Senonago), probably modernSoignies orSens |
| Died | c. 658 |
Samo (c. 600 –c. 658) was the founder and sole ruler of the first recorded unified tribal polity ofSlavs, later known asSamo's realm,[a] ruling from 623 until his death in 658. According toFredegar—the earliest source about Samo and the one from which all later ones derive[1][2]—he was aFrankish merchant fromSens.[3]
Samo initially established his rule by unifying severalSlavic tribes against robber raiders from the nearbyAvar polity and initiating an uprising against Avar rule. This led to him occupying a position later called "King of the Slavs" (Latin:rex Sclavorum) by the Gesta Dagoberti's reworking[b] of Fredegar's account.[1] In 631, Samo successfully led a defense of his tribal polity against theFrankish Kingdom during the three-dayBattle of Wogastisburg. TheSorbian rulerDervan changed his allegiances from the Frankish kingdom to Samo's tribal polity.[4]
Samo has often served as central narrative figure for various forms ofSlavic nationalism,[c] which commonly disregard the only independent source for his life alleging he was of Frankish origin,[d] in favor of accounts based on theConversio Carantanorum's reworking of Fredegar, which allege Samo was of Slavic origin.[5][6] The kingly title first recorded in the 9th-century Gesta Dagoberti's reworking of Fredegar's account was not used by his sons.[4]
Samo's realm existed between 623/631 AD and 658 inCentral Europe.[7][8] The extent of Samo's power before and after 631 is disputed.[9] The centre of the union was most likely inMoravia and Nitravia (Nitra); additionally, the union includedBohemian tribes, proto-Slovak tribes,Sorbs (underDervan), and other West Slavic tribes along the riverDanube (presentLower Austria andHungary). Thepolityper se has been called the first Slavic state.[10][11]
It is generally believed that the tribal union included the regions ofMoravia,Nitravia (Nitra),Silesia,Bohemia andLusatia. According to Julius Bartl, the centre of the polity lay "somewhere in the area of southern Moravia, Lower Austria, and western Slovakia (Nitravia)".[12] According toJ. B. Bury, "the assumption that his kingdom embracedCarantania, the country of the Alpine Slavs, rests only upon theAnonymus de conversione Bagariorum et Carantanorum".[13] Archaeological findings indicate that the realm was situated in present-dayMoravia,Lower Austria andSlovakia. According to Slovak historianRichard Marsina, it is unlikely that the center of Samo's tribal union was in the whole territory of present-day Slovakia.[14] The settlements of the laterMoravian andNitrian principalities (see:Great Moravia) are often identical with those from the time of Samo's realm.
The core of Samo's state was located north of theDanube, and in theupper Main region.[15] In some historical sources of the early 9th century, this region is described as "regio Sclavorum" or "terra Slavorum". Large amounts of early medieval Slavicceramics are also found here. Many Slavic toponyms have also been found in this area, such asWinideheim ("The Hill of the Wends"),[16] andKnetzburg ("Prince's Castle").[17][18]
According to Fredegar, Samo went to the Slavs inc. 623–624.[19] The dating has been questioned on the basis that the Wends would have most likely rebelled after the defeat of theAvars at theFirst Siege of Constantinople in 626.[19] The Avars first arrived in thePannonian Basin and subdued the local Slavs in the 560s. Samo may have been one of the merchants who supplied arms to the Slavs for their regular revolts. Whether he became king during a revolt of 623–24 or during the one which inevitably followed theAvar defeat in 626, he definitively took strategic advantage of the latter to solidify his position.[19] A string of victories over the Avars proved his ability to his subjects and secured his election asrex (king).[20] Samo went on to secure his throne by marriage into the major Wendish families, wedding at least twelve women and apparently fathering twenty-two sons and fifteen daughters.[21]
In 630–631,Valuk, the "duke of theWends" (Wallucus dux Winedorum) was mentioned.[22] These Wends referred to the Slavs of theWindic March, which according to some historians was the laterMarch of Carinthia (Carantania) in present Slovenia and Austria. According to Jan Steinhubel, Valuk allowedLongobards to pass through his territory and attack Samo from south-west. Longobards were allies of Franks (Dagobert I) against Samo. If Valuk allowed Longobards to go through his territory, his principality could have not been part of Samo's realm.
The most famous event of Samo's career was his victory over the Frankish royal army underDagobert I in 631 or 632. Provoked to action by a "violent quarrel in the Pannonian kingdom of the Avars or Huns", Dagobert led three armies against the Wends, the largest being his ownAustrasian army.[19] The Franks were routed nearWogastisburg; the majority of the besieging armies were slaughtered, while the rest of the troops fled, leaving weapons and other equipment lying on the ground. In the aftermath of the Wendish victory, Samo invaded FrankishThuringia several times and undertook looting raids there.[23]Dervan, the "duke of theSorbs" (dux gente Surbiorum que ex genere Sclavinorum), initially subordinate to the Franks, joined the Slavic tribal union after Samo defeated Dagobert I.[24] The Sorbs lived to the east of the SaxonSaale. Dervan participated in the subsequent wars against the Franks, successfully fighting against Frankish Thuringia (631–634), until he was finally defeated byRadulf of Thuringia in 636.
In 641, the rebellious Radulf sought an alliance with Samo against his sovereign,Sigebert III.[19] According toChronicle of Fredegar, the Wendish rebellion against Avars took place in 623/624.[25][26] This was two years before theSiege of Constantinople by Avars which was supported by Slavs. However, modern researchers reject this version and believe the revolt took place around 626, after Avar failure under the walls ofConstantinople which provoked the Slavic revolt, combined with long history of unfriendly Slav-Avar relations.[25]
| Samo's rebellion | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Avar settlement area in the Carpathian Basin from the 7th to the 9th century by to Éva Garam. | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Slavic tribes |  Avar Khaganate | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Samo | Bayan III | ||||||||
The revolt is believed to have begun inMoravia. The Slavic rebels were allegedly supported byFranks and Samo was supposedly sent fromFrancia to ensure Frankish support.[27] The revolt allegedly also been supported by theByzantine Empire.[28] Samo realised that the rebels lacked a strong leadership, which he used as an opportunity to establish his authority and demonstrate his command skills.[27] Under Samo's leadership, Slavic rebels successfully fought and defeated Avars in multiple engagements. Samo earned respect among the Slavic tribes for his skilled leadership.[25] Samo's victory over Avars in the final engagement secured the success of the rebellion and establishment of his state on the freed Slavic lands.[27]
According toChronicle of Fredegar, "A great number of theHuns [Avars] were killed byVinidian [Slavic] swords." during the rebellion.[29] The success of the Slavic uprising caused irrecoverable damage to theAvar Khaganate and Samo was proclaimedRex Sclavorum ("King of the Slavs") for his outstanding leadership in the uprising.[30]
Despite the desire ofFranks to establish their control over the recently freed Slavic lands and Samo's connection to theFrankish lands, Samo refused to bring these lands under Frankish control and retained independence of his newly-established state from both the Avar Khaganate and Francia.[27] Samo signed a peace agreement with KingDagobert I to ensure stability for his state.[31] It was believed to have encompassedBohemia,Moravia,Slovakia, easternAustria and laterWhite Serbia.[31][27] However, in 630, the Franks invaded Slavic lands after Samo's refusal to turn in Slavs who engaged in rampant banditry against the Frankish merchants. The conflict cumulated at theBattle of Wogastisburg in 631, which ended in Frankish defeat.[31]
Samo also maintained long-distance trade relationships.[21] On his death, however, his title was not inherited by his sons.[21] Ultimately, Samo can be credited with forging aWendish identity by speaking on behalf of the community which recognised his authority.[32]
The history of the tribal union after Samo's death in 658 or 659 is largely unclear, though it is generally assumed that it ended. Archaeological findings show that the Avars returned to their previous territories (at least to southernmost modern Slovakia) and entered into a symbiosis with the Slavs, whereas territories to the north of theAvar Khaganate were purely Slav territories. The first specific thing that is known about the fate of these Slavs and Avars is the existence of Moravian and Nitravian principalities in the late 8th century, which attacked the Avars, and the defeat of the Avars by the Franks underCharlemagne in 799 or 802–03, after which the Avars soon ceased to exist.Great Moravia is viewed as a continuation or successor state to Samo's realm.[33] The polity has been called the first Slavic state.[10][11]
The main source of written information on Samo and his realm is theFredegarii Chronicon, a Frankish chronicle written in the mid-7th century (c. 660). Though theories of multiple authorship once abounded, the notion of a single Fredegar is now common scholarly fare.[34] The last or only Fredegar was the author of a brief account of theWends including the best, and only contemporary, information on Samo. According to Fredegar, "Samo [was] a Frank by birth [or nation] from thepago Senonago", which could be present-daySoignies inBelgium or present-daySens inFrance. Although he was of Frankish origin, Samo demanded that an ambassador (Sicharius) ofDagobert I (King of the Franks) put on Slavic clothes before entering his castle.
All other sources for Samo are derived from Fredegar and are much more recent. TheGesta Dagoberti I regis Francorum ("Deeds of King Dagobert I of the Franks") was written in the first third of the 9th century. TheConversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum ("Conversion of the Bavarians and Karantanians") fromSalzburg (the Bavarian ecclesiastic centre), written in 871–72, is a very tendentious source, as its name suggests. According mainly to theConversio, Samo was aKarantanian merchant.
The sources Fredegar used to compile his Wendish account are unknown. A few scholars have attacked the entire account as fictitious, but Fredegar displays a critical attitude and a knowledge of detail that suggest otherwise.[35] It is possible that he had an eyewitness in the person of Sicharius, the ambassador ofDagobert I to the Slavs.[34] According to Fredegar, the "Wends" had long been subjects andbefulci of theAvars.Befulci is a term, cognate with the wordfulcfree found in theEdict of Rothari, signifying "entrusted [to guard]", from theOld German rootfelhan, falh, fulgum andMiddle Germanbevelhen.[35] Fredegar appears to have envisaged the Wends as a military unit of the Avar host. He probably based his account on "native" Wendish accounts.[35] Fredegar records the story of theorigo gentis (origin of the people) of the Wends. The Wends were Slavs, but Samo was the only king of theWends, at least according to Fredegar.[35]
It has also been suggested that Fredegar's sources may have been the reports of Christian missionaries, especially disciples ofColumbanus and theAbbey of Luxeuil.[35] If this is correct, it may explain why he is remarkably free of typical stereotypes of heathen Slavs, and why he was familiar with the Wends as a specifically pagan nation.[35]
The dates for Samo's rule are based on Fredegar, who states that he "went to the Slavs in the fortieth year ofChlothar II" (i.e., 623–24) and reigned for thirty five years.[36] The interpretation that places the start of Samo's reign in the year of Fredegar's arrival has been questioned on the basis that the Slavs (known also as theWends) would have most likely rebelled after the defeat of theAvarkhagan at theFirst Siege of Constantinople in 626.[36] The Avars first arrived in thePannonian Basin and subdued the local Slavs in the 560s. Samo may have been one of the merchants who supplied arms to the Slavs for their frequent revolts. Whether he became king during a revolt of 623–24 or during one that inevitably followed the Avar defeat in 626, he definitely took advantage of the latter to solidify his position.[36] A string of victories over the Avars proved hisutilitas (usefulness) to his subjects and secured his election asrex (king).[37] Samo went on to secure his throne by marriage into the major Wendish families, wedding at least twelve women and fathering twenty-two sons and fifteen daughters.[38]
Each year, the Huns [Avars] came to the Slavs, to spend the winter with them; then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with them, and among the other mistreatments [already mentioned] the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns. But the sons of the Huns, who were [then] raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends [Slavs] could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns and began, as already mentioned, a rebellion. When now the Wendish army went against the Huns, the [aforementioned] merchant Samo accompanied the same. And so the Samo's bravery proved itself in wonderful ways and a huge mass of Huns fell to the sword of the Wends.
— Chronicle of Fredegar, Book IV, Section 48, written circa 642
The next text that speaks of the kingdom of Samo, the Gesta Dagoberti, written in the ninth century, is wholly dependent for its narrative on Fredegar…
As a rare contribution to a lively debate, the MIÖG also printed a three-page 'Kleine Mitteilung' about Samo by the prestigious Czech historian Jaroslav Goll in which he correctly showed that the passage in the Conversio about Samo as prince of the Carantanians was ultimately derived from Fredegar and therefore contained no independent information.
Ta sve što znamo o Samu i Slavenima u Samovu regnumu znamo jedino po Fredegaru kao primarnom povijesnom vrelu. Iznoseći neke detalje koji se datiraju sa 631. god. Fredegar spominje »marca Vinedorum«, Wallucus-dux Winedorum, ...
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