Asailor,seaman,mariner, orseafarer is a person who works aboard awatercraft as part of its crew, and may work in any one of a number of different fields that are related to the operation and maintenance of a ship. While the termsailor has its etymological roots fromsailing, that is a time whensailing ships were the main mode of transport at sea, it now refers to the personnel of all watercraft regardless of the type of vessel, boat or ship.[1] It encompasses people who operate ships professionally, be it for a military (navy) or civilian (merchant navy) or forsports or recreation. In anavy, there may be further distinctions:sailor may refer to any member of the navy even if they are based on land, whileseaman may refer to a specificenlisted rank. Additionally,fisherman are seen as a distinct type of sailor, that is those engaged infishing.
Sailors have existed from the earliest periods in history as people used boats for purposes such asmaritime transport.[2][3] Professional sailors normally undertake training or other forms of education to develop their skills. Professional sailors are also governed by regulations, including theSTCW Convention.[4]
Artwork published in 1896 fromThe History of Mankind, which depicts adrua.
Polynesian navigators would sail to several islands east ofNew Guinea by 1500 BCE. Voyages would eventually be travelled across thePolynesian triangle. This extensivewayfinding was conducted through the use of specialized watercraft, observing stars, and awareness of other natural phenomena.[5]
A knowledge and understanding ofseamanship is a key component of being a sailor, typically seen as a requisite for safety and efficient working at sea.[9] While the level of knowledge will vary by the ship type and sailor, areas of knowledge include operational practices such asnavigation,anchoring and othernautical operations.[9] Sailors usually have an awareness of basicmeteorology including the need to monitor theweather at sea.[10]Passage planning, maintenance ofmachinery and/or rigging/sails is also necessary, depending on the type of vessel.[11]
Working at sea safely also requires adequate clothing (especially when working outside on a vessel) orPPE depending on the job.[10][12]
An important skill as a sailor when working with others (a crew) is effectivecommunication.[13][14]
Working conditions vary according to the nature of the sailor's employment. Whilst sailors may be employed on a vessel for extended periods of time, it is often not the case that sailors will spend the entirety of that period sailing since ships are often docked at a port for a significant period.[15] Mariners spend extended periods at sea. Most deep-sea mariners are hired for one or more voyages that last for several months. The length of time between voyages varies by job availability and personal preference.[16]
There are specific challenges towork-life balance as a seafarer due to the nature of employment itself, such as the physical distance between one's job and home.[17] Another challenge facing sailors on international voyages is the adjustment totime zones as the ship sails through various oceans.[18] An adopted solution is to gradually adjust the timings of the ship which often leads to wake-up times being adjusted periodically. Sampson further notes that ships often have a 'dry ship' or 'no alcohol' policy which prohibits even the possession of alcohol with 'random testing' taking place 'fairly regularly'.[18] Seafarers typically live on board their ships and may find this experience to be isolating and lonely.[19] Seafarers are at a greater risk ofsuicide compared to other occupations.[20]
Internet accessibility has been possible with the advent of satellite communication, mainly from providers such asInmarsat,Iridium andStarlink.[21] The availability of affordable roaming SIM cards with online top-up facilities have also contributed to improved connection with friends and family. As internet data has become cheaper, seafarers have gained better connectivity, however they are often charged for using data.[21] In 2022, the right to internet access for sailors was adopted in theMaritime Labour Convention although shipowners can charger sailors for this service.[22][23]
Merchant sailors may belong to atrade union to allow for collective bargaining of wages and other employment benefits. In the US, the rate of unionization for these workers is about 36 percent, much higher than the average for all occupations. US merchant marine officers and seamen, both veterans and beginners, are hired for voyages through union hiring halls. Hiring halls fill jobs by the length of time the person has been registered at the hall and by their union seniority. Hiring halls typically are found in major seaports in the US.[24] However, merchant sailors can also be hired by direct employment with a shipowner or crewing agency.Filipino seamen typically gain employment at sea through a seafarers pool (agency).[25] Regardless of the contract of employment (union, shipowner, agency) since 2013 merchant sailors should now be given a seafarer's employment agreement under theMaritime Labour Convention that sets out basic employment terms and renumeration.[26]
Seafarers hold a variety ofprofessions and ranks. Minimum international standards for merchant vessels are regulated by theSTCW Convention.[27] Certifications regarding safety and basic firefighting must be renewed every five years.[28] TheMaritime Labour Convention regulates other standards surrounding maritime employment in the 96 countries that have ratified it such as accommodations and payment of wages.[29] As of 2021, an estimated 1.28% of workers in the maritime industry were women.[30]
Officer positions in thedeck department include but are not limited to:master and hischief,second andthird officers. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the deck department areable seaman andordinary seaman.[31] With some variation, the chief mate is most often charged with the duties of cargo mate. Second Mates are charged with being the medical officer in case of a medical emergency. All three mates each do four-hour morning and afternoon shifts on the bridge, when underway at sea.
A common deck crew for a large merchant ship includes:
A ship's engineering department consists of the members of a ship's crew that operates and maintains the propulsion, machinery and other systems on board the vessel.[32] Marine engineering staff also deal with the "hotel" facilities on board, notably thesewage, lighting,air conditioning and water systems. Engineering staff manages bulk fuel transfers, from a fuel-supply barge in port. When underway at sea, the second and third engineers will often be occupied with oil transfers from storage tanks, to active working tanks. Cleaning of oil purifiers is another regular task. Engineering staff is required to have training infirefighting and first aid. Additional duties include maintaining the ship's boats and performing other nautical tasks. Engineers play a key role in cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers and deck workers.
The engineering department will vary according to the type and size of the ship. The engineering crew for a large merchant ship typically includes:
Merchant ships will also typically train and have onboard one or moreEngine Cadets (unlicensed Trainee engineer). Other possible positions include fitter,[33]machinist,electrician, refrigeration engineer and tankerman. Electricians on merchant ships are known asElectro-technical officers (ETO).[33] They have separate training, education and licensing requirements.[34]
The chief steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals; cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters and steward department areas; and receiving, issuing, and inventorying stores. The chief steward also plans menus, compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records. The steward may requisition or purchase stores and equipment. Galley's roles may include baking. A chief steward's duties may overlap with those of thesteward's assistant, thechief cook, and other Steward's department crewmembers.[35]
Typically, the only time that steward department staff are charged with duties outside the steward department is during emergencies and training such as fire/boat drills.
Various types of staff officer positions may exist on board a ship, including junior assistant purser, senior assistant purser,purser, chief purser,medical doctor, professionalnurse, marine physician assistant, andhospital corpsman. In the USA these jobs are considered administrative positions and are therefore regulated by Certificates of Registry issued by the United States Coast Guard.[37]
Maritime pilots are also licensed seafarers that have additional knowledge, training and experience in sailing local waterways, ports and harbours.[38] Sailors who become pilots typically have to undertake a pilotage exam to demonstrate their knowledge of local waters and theirshiphandling experience.[39]
The rules and regulations that apply to sailors vary by country and depend on the type of waterborne craft. Some countries do not require sailors to possess a licence and/or training to operate a small and/or basic boat where as some require a basic safety certificate.[40][41] However, for larger sailing boats and for some recreational sailors, national governing bodies will set out training and licensing requirements, an example being theRYA in the UK.[42] TheInternational Certificate of Competence (ICC) is the approved form of international sailing licence for recreational (pleasure craft) sailors, as set by theUNECE.[43][44] However, for professional sailors, requirements are set out by various national and international authorities. Sailors in anavy will undertake military and seafarer training, typically in anaval academy. For merchant seafarers, training is regulated international under theSTCW Convention.[45] This requires seafarers in certain roles and departments to be licensed, that is tested to a certain level and in receipt of training documentation and for officer roles, acertificate of competency achieved through seatime as a cadet and through an approved period of training at a nautical college.[46]
The rights of sailors who operate in a commercial capacity are set out and protected under theMaritime Labour Convention which was adopted in 2006 and entered into force in 2013.[48]
Sailors have developed and continue to use avocabulary of words, phrases and slang for use at sea.[49] This includes the use of a variety ofnautical terms. In theRoyal Navy for example,Jackspeak is a form of nautical speak or slang used at sea.[50] Those working at sea in theoffshore sector also use a variety of terms. The use ofprofanity, that is 'swearing as a sailor' is a typical cultural representation.[51][52]
^Fei, Jiangang (2018).Managing Human Resources in the Shipping Industry. Chapter 8: Taylor and Francis.ISBN9781317578741.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^abSampson, Helen (2024).Sea-Time: An Ethnographic Adventure. London: Routledge. pp. 51–52.ISBN9781003440123.
^Blanpain, Roger; Dmitrova, Desislava (2010).Seafarers' Rights in the Globalized Maritime Industry. Kluwer Law International. p. 27.ISBN9789041133496.
^Witt, Jörn-Ahrend (2007).Obligations and Control of Flag States: Developments and Perspectives in International Law and EU Law. Lit Verlag. p. 107.ISBN9783825810566.
^Organization, International Maritime (2017).STCW International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers. London: International Maritime Organization.ISBN978-92-801-1635-9.
_(14763687525).jpg)
.jpg)
