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River Tees

Coordinates:54°38′54″N1°08′51″W / 54.6483°N 1.1474°W /54.6483; -1.1474
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
East coast river of Northern England

River Tees
High Force on the River Tees
Course of the Tees[1]
Map
Location
CountryEngland
County
Physical characteristics
Source 
 • locationCross Fell
 • coordinates54°42′02″N2°28′02″W / 54.7006°N 2.4673°W /54.7006; -2.4673
 • elevation2,474 ft (754 m)
MouthNorth Sea
 • location
betweenSeal Sands andRedcar
 • coordinates
54°38′54″N1°08′51″W / 54.6483°N 1.1474°W /54.6483; -1.1474
 • elevation
0 ft (0 m)
Length85 mi (137 km)
Basin size708 sq mi (1,834 km2)
Basin features
Tributaries 
 • leftHarwood Beck, Hudeshope Beck,
Eggleston Burn,Skerne, Billingham Beck
 • rightMaize Beck,Lune,Balder,Greta,Leven
River Tees
Source of River Tees
Troutbeck
Cow Green Reservoir
Cauldron Snout waterfall
Maize Beck
Harwood Beck
Mill Race
Kirk Sike
Fell Dike Sike
Skyer Beck
Blea Beck
Smithy Sike
High Force waterfall
Caldron Sike
Holwick Head Bridge
Low Force waterfall
Wynch Bridge
Stony Beck
Bow Lee Beck
Holwick Beck
Unthank Beck
Park Beck
Hudeshope Beck
B6277 road
River Lune
Eggleston Burn
River Balder
Deepdale Beck
Barnard Castle
 A67 
Abbey road
River Greta
Whorlton Bridge
Whorlton Beck
Peg Beck
B6274 road
B6275 road
Piercebridge Beck
Ulnaby Beck
 A1(M) 
Tees Cottage Pumping Station
 A66 Blackwell Bridge
Clow Beck
River Skerne
 A167 Croft Bridge
East Coast Main LineCroft Viaduct
Dalton Batts
Low Hall Bridge
Neasham Hall Bridge
Girsby Bridge
Neasham Hill
Tidal limit until 1995
Northallerton to Eaglescliffe Line (Yarm Viaduct)
 A135 
River Leven
Brecon Beck
Jubilee Bridge (Queen Elizabeth Way)
A66 road (Surtees Bridge)
Tees Valley Line (Surtees Rail Bridge)
 A135  (Victoria Bridge)
Teesquay
Teesquay Millennium Footbridge
Princess Diana Bridge
Infinity Bridge
Mandale Cut
Tees Barrage
Tees Barrage
Tees Barrage International White Water Course
Tidal limit from 1995
Old River Tees (tidal)
Portrack Cut
Lustrum Beck
 A19  (Tees Viaduct)
 A1032  (Newport Bridge)
Billingham Beck
Tees Transporter Bridge
Middlesbrough Dock
Priestman Road (footbridge)
Dry docks
Teesport
Redcar Bulk Terminal (right bank), Seal Sands (left bank)
Seal Sands nature reserve
Greatham Creek
Seaton-on-Tees
Teesmouth national nature reserve
River mouth (North Sea)

TheRiver Tees (/tiːz/), in England, rises on the eastern slope ofCross Fell in theNorth Pennines and flows eastwards for 85 miles (137 km) to reach theNorth Sea in the North East of England.[1] The modern-day history of the river has been tied with the industries onTeesside in its lower reaches, where it has provided the means of import and export of goods to and from theNorth East England. The need for water further downstream also meant that reservoirs were built in the extreme upper reaches, such asCow Green.[2]

Etymology

[edit]

The nameTees is possibly ofBrittonic origin.The element*tēs, meaning "warmth" with connotations of "boiling, excitement" (Welshtes), may underlie the name.[a]*Teihx-s, a root possibly derived from Brittonic*ti (Welshtail, "dung, manure"), has also been used to explain the nameTees (compareRiver Tyne).[b]

Geography

[edit]

The river drains 710 square miles (1,800 km2) and has a number of tributaries including theRiver Greta,River Lune,River Balder,River Leven andRiver Skerne.[4] Before the reorganisation of thehistoric English counties, the river formed the boundary betweenCounty Durham andYorkshire. In its lower reaches it now forms the boundary between theceremonial counties of County Durham andNorth Yorkshire, while in the highest part of its course it forms the boundary between the historic counties ofWestmorland andDurham. The head ofTeesdale (the name of valley especially at this end), has a desolate grandeur, surrounded bymoorland and hills, some exceeding 2,500 feet (760 m).[5] This area is part of theNorth PennineArea of Outstanding Natural Beauty.[6]

The source of the river at Teeshead just below Cross Fell is at an elevation of about 2,401 feet (732 m). It flows east-north-east through an area ofshake holes throughcarboniferous limestone. Below Viewing Hill, it turns south to theCow Green Reservoir constructed to store water to be released in dry conditions to satisfy the industrial need for water on Teesside.[6][7]

Emerging from the reservoir atCauldron Snout the river traverses a series of hard blackbasalt anddolerite rocks that intrude through the softer limestone,[8] in a succession of falls or rapids. From this point downstream the Tees forms the boundary between the traditional counties of Durham andYorkshire almost without a break,[5] although since 1974 much of it is wholly in Durham. The dale widens below Cauldron Snout, and trees appear, contrasting with the broken rocks where the water descends overHigh Force.[5] After a short turn northwards, the river continues to meander south-easterly. Close to where the B6277 road begins to run parallel to the river is the 69-foot (21 m)[9]High Force waterfall. About1+1⁄2 miles (2.4 km) downstream is the smallerLow Force waterfall.[6]

Theconfluence of theRiver Greta and the River Tees

The scenery becomes gentler and more picturesque as the river descends pastMiddleton-in-Teesdale (Durham). This locality haslead andironstone resources. Just to the east of Middleton-in-Teesdale, theRiver Lune joins the Tees. After passing the village ofRomaldkirk to the west, the river is joined by theRiver Balder atCotherstone. The ancient town ofBarnard Castle,Egglestone Abbey, andRokeby Park, known through SirWalter Scott's poemRokeby, are all passed.[5] At Rokeby the Tees is joined by theRiver Greta. From the area near Eggleston, the river is crossing overmillstone grit.[10] From here the valley begins to open out, and traverses the rich plain east and south ofDarlington in large meandering curves.[6]

The course of the valley down to here has been generally east-south-east, but it now turns north-east near the village ofWhorlton. PassingOvington andWinston it runs parallel to theA67 south-east pastGainford andPiercebridge toDarlington, passing under theA1 andA66. The section from Piercebridge to Hurworth flows overmagnesian limestone.[10] It is atCroft-on-Tees that theRiver Skerne joins the Tees. The river now flows south past Croft-on-Tees before swinging northwards pastHurworth-on-Tees. A series of large meanders takes the course pastNeasham,Low Dinsdale andSockburn toMiddleton St George.[6] In the lower reaches of the river valley the water flows overbunter sandstone andpebble beds.[10]

Just past Yarm, theRiver Leven joins the Tees, before passing the settlements ofEaglescliffe,Ingleby Barwick andThornaby-on-Tees. Now nearing the sea, the Tees becomes an important commercial waterway, with the ports ofStockton-on-Tees andMiddlesbrough on its banks.[5] It passes through theTees Barrage between these ports, turning tidal downstream from the barrage.[6]

Teesport is built onreclaimed land on the south side of the Tees estuary below Middlesbrough.[11] A direct line from the source of the Tees to Teesmouth is 50 miles (80 km), but due to the meandering of the river, it flows for over 80 miles (130 km).[12]

Water levels

[edit]
Monitoring station[13]Station elevationLow water levelHigh water levelRecord high level
Middleton-on-Tees216 m (709 ft)0.37 m (1.2 ft)1.5 m (4.9 ft)3.19 m (10.5 ft)
Barnard Castle (Startforth)141 m (463 ft)0.46 m (1.5 ft)1.4 m (4.6 ft)2.68 m (8.8 ft)
Broken Scar (Darlington)41 m (135 ft)0.54 m (1.8 ft)1.7 m (5.6 ft)3.28 m (10.8 ft)
Low Moor (Low Dinsdale)18 m (59 ft)0.31 m (1.0 ft)4 m (13 ft)6.32 m (20.7 ft)
Yarm7 m (23 ft)0.45 m (1.5 ft)2.05 m (6.7 ft)4.08 m (13.4 ft)
  • Low and high water levels are an average figure.

Seal Sands

[edit]
Main article:Seal Sands

Before the heavy industrialisation of the Tees, the flats atSeal Sands in the estuary were home tocommon seals. For around 100 years this species was absent from the estuary but have now returned and can be seen on the flats at Seal Sands.[14] The Seal Sands area is now designated as the Teesmouth National Nature Reserve.[15]

Alterations

[edit]
The River Tees (Portrack Cut) passing through theGreen-Blue Heart of the Tees Corridor betweenMiddlesbrough andStockton District.

A proposal was made in 1769 to makecuts in the river which would straighten the course and enable ships to save time and money in navigation. Between Stockton-on-Tees and Middlesbrough, the river previously meandered first south and then north of its current channel.[16] Two "cuts", known as theMandale Cut and thePortrack Cut, were made to straighten its course in 1810 and 1831 respectively.[17] Before these cuts were made, the journey by sailing barge from Thornaby to the mouth of the Tees, allowing for tides and other factors, could take as long as seven days.[18] The Mandale Cut was the shorter of the two, at about 220 yards (200 m), with the Portrack Cut being considerably longer (1,100 yards (1,000 m)), although the northern meander it removed was smaller than the southern meander.[19] Neither meander is visible today, except for the flow ofStainsby Beck into a waterway which is marked on maps first as "The Fleet" and then "Old River Tees". The currentTees Barrage is close to the site of the Mandale Cut.[20]

Since the cuts were made, the river has continued to undergo alterations to its bed and banks to make it deeper and more navigable. The channel has been made considerably narrower by dumping ship's ballast and ironworks slag along the former banks, increasing the scouring due to its natural flow. Maps made prior to 1900[21] show that between Stockton and Middlesbrough the river flowed in a channel up to 330 yards (300 m) wide in places, with many shoals and sandbars. The modern channel varies between about 110 yards (100 m) and 220 yards (200 m).

In October 2021 the UK engineering company, GRAHAM, started work on the 0.75-mile (1.2 km) South Bank Quay project to provide a deep water facility. It is expected that two million tonnes of material will be dredged to allow GE Renewable Energy to load huge wind turbine blades onto ships. The 351-foot (107 m) long blades are destined for theDogger Bank wind farm. The Heavy Fuel Oil Farm and Tarmac jetties are to be removed.[22][23]

Industry

[edit]

The River Tees has been used for transporting industrial goods since theIndustrial Revolution, particularly for the shipment ofcoal from theDurham Coalfields and also for thesteel industries that later developed aroundMiddlesbrough.[24] In the early years merchant ships left the River Tees after loading inYarm andStockton on Tees; but as merchant ships became bigger, these smaller docks were superseded by bigger and deeper docks in Middlesbrough, and later even further downstream atTeesport close to the mouth of the River Tees. The emergence of the Steel industry in the late 19th century earned it the nickname "The Steel River" owing to the many steelworks that operated along the banks of the Tees. In the 20th century the river also became important to the developingchemical industry, contributing particularly to the development ofImperial Chemical Industries (ICI) who used reclaimed land on the north bank for import/export facilities.[25]

The move to loading coal on bigger ships in Middlesbrough was the economic driver for the development not only of the town of Middlesbrough itself but also of the railway betweenStockton and Darlington. This is whereGeorge Stephenson developed his railway engine "Locomotion" and this railway was the first steam railway to carry passengers, as well as industrial materials. TheStockton and Darlington Railway was founded after an initial shareholders' meeting in a room in a public house in Yarm.

TodayTeesport is owned byPD Ports; it is located close to the North Sea and 3 miles (5 km) east of Middlesbrough.[26][27] Teesport is currently the third largest port in the United Kingdom, and among the ten biggest in Western Europe, handling over 56 million tonnes of domestic and international cargo per year. The vast majority of these products are still related to the steel and chemical industries made by companies that are members of theNortheast of England Process Industry Cluster (NEPIC). The areas where large scale commoditychemical industry continues to be based areBillingham andSeal Sands, both on the north bank of the River Tees, andWilton on the south bank. TheTeesside Steelworks atRedcar operated until closure in 2015.[28]

Other industrial companies that use the River Tees are manufacturing and servicing theNorth Sea oil and gas industry as well as therenewable energy industry sector, includingoffshore wind turbines. The south bank of the mouth of the River Tees has the 62-megawattTeesside Offshore Wind Farm, built 2011–13.[29]

Near the mouth of the River Tees is the largedry dock facility ofABLE UK, named TERRC (Teesside Environmental Reclamation and Recycling Centre), used to dismantle or oil rigs and other large vessels.[30]Hartlepool Nuclear Power Station is adjacent to the east.[31]

2021 North-East England shellfish die-off

[edit]
Main article:2021 North-East England shellfish die-off

In early October 2021 thousands of dead crabs and lobsters were washed up on the Tees estuary and beaches along the North-East coast of England. The deaths were first reported in Seaton Carew, Redcar and Seaham. A 95% decline in the lobster and crab catch was noticed by those employed in the local fishing industry. A spokesperson for the UKEnvironment Agency said, "Samples of water, sediment, mussel and crab have been collected and are being sent to our labs for analysis to consider whether a pollution incident could have contributed to the deaths of the animals." TheCentre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) labs were also testing crustaceans for disease. There is no evidence of any link to recent strandings of marine mammals and seabirds across the UK and countries along the North Sea coast, according to the EA.[32]

By late November the crustacean die-off had spread as far south asRobin Hood's Bay and was affecting catches inWhitby. The Environment Agency has ruled out chemical pollution as the cause of the mass shellfish deaths. Dredging was also rejected as the cause of theenvironmental disaster. Environment Agency operations manager Sarah Jennings said, "We've used both traditional and innovative screening methods to analyse samples of water, sediment and crab looking for traces of contamination. We’ve screened for over 1,000 potential chemical contaminants but found no anomalies that could lead to an event of this scale."[33]

In early February 2022 it was reported that, "Defra and partner agencies have completed a thorough investigation of the cause of dead crabs and lobsters which were found washed up on the North East coast between October and December 2021. Following significant testing and modelling to rule out possible causes, Defra and partner agencies consider that the deaths of the crabs and lobsters potentially resulted from a naturally occurring harmfulalgal bloom."[34][35] In June 2022George Monbiot wrote inThe Guardian, "Astonishingly, although there is no evidence that it conducted such sampling, the government concluded not only that a bloom had occurred, but that it was caused by a particular, toxic species:Karenia mikimotoi. This is the stuff of science fiction.Karenia thrives in temperatures between 20 and 24 °C [68 and 75 °F]. The average water temperature on this coast in October is 13 °C [55 °F]. There is no plausible mechanism by which aKarenia bloom could cause the mass death of lobsters and crabs without also killing large numbers of fish, sea urchins and many other species." Monbiot reported that when he asked the UK government to publish its evidence the government refused.[36]

Legends and folklore

[edit]

Peg Powler is ahag in English folklore who is said to inhabit the River Tees.[37][38][39]

In popular culture

[edit]

The River Tees was featured in the television seriesSeven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of the North, and in the post-apocalyptic dramaThe Last Train having blown its banks.

Crossings

[edit]
This section is an excerpt fromList of crossings of the River Tees § History of crossings.[edit]

An early crossing of the Tees was made by theRomans, with the construction of abridge atPiercebridge, along with acorresponding fortress.[40] The bridge was built on the route ofDere Street, and as a result it likely saw a great deal of military traffic going between thefortress at York and thenorthern frontier.[41] It was first built in wood around 90 AD, before being rebuilt in stone, possibly when the first bridge washed away. The use of the bridge may have continued into thesub-Roman period.[40]

Crossings of the Tees continued to be important in the journey from north to south, and vice versa, along the east coast, during the medieval period.[42] During the 13th century it was described as "the major obstacle to speedy travel out of the diocese of Durham southwards", with the contemporary fords, bridges and ferries proving particularly inconvenient in the winter period.[43] This included theGreat North Road, for which theCroft Bridge was built in the 13th or 14th centuries.Yarm Bridge was built around 1400, bybishop Skirlaw.[42]

In 1771 amajor flood on the Tees, along with others in the North-East, caused major damage to the river's bridges, completely destroying some. TheWynch Bridge, supposedly the oldest suspension bridge in Europe, dating from 1741, was lifted from its moorings. The bridge inGilmonby was recorded as being destroyed after having only been fully operational for 3 years. On the other hand, The medieval Yarm Bridge was not affected by the flood, despite every other building in the town being damaged.[44]

1830 illustration of theStockton Railway Suspension Bridge, the first railway suspension bridge in the world, on the site of today'sSurtees Rail Bridge.[45]

With the industrialisation of the area through the 19th century, many new bridges where needed closer to the ports mouth.[43] When theStockton and Darlington railway, first opened in 1825, it was realised that thestaiths atStockton were too small to export the desired amount of coal. The decision was made to start exporting closer to the rivers mouth on the other bank, atPort Darlington (laterMiddlesbrough). This required the building ofthe first suspension railway bridge.[c] This moved the commercial centre of gravity of Teesside further down stream, where many future bridges would be built.[45]

By the end of that century there were 21 principal firms on and adjacent to the Tees in the Stockton and Thornaby area, with 36 firms in the Middlesbrough area. This led to the development of two of the most famous bridges on the river, TheTransporter Bridge, in 1911, and theNewport Bridge, in 1934, both trying to balance the needs of travellers across the river with shipping up and down it.[43]

Gallery

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Brittonic Language (Alan James) < *tēs > . . . ‘Warmth’, with connotations of ‘boiling’, ‘excitement’, etc. . . . Proposed by Ekwall, ERN pp. 395-7, for the river-name Tees, but note Jackson’s scepticism . . .[3]
  2. ^Brittonic Language (Alan James) < *ti- > . . . a pre-Celtic root *tei-/*ti- for river names of the ‘Tyne’ type, following Ekwall in giving the meaning as ‘to melt, to flow’. . . . However, the existence of such a root is questionable . . .[3]
  3. ^Due to design flaws, this first bridge swayed far to much and had to be supported by wooden "Starlings". Even still the sway was so much that wagons had chained 9 meters apart so that weight was distributed evenly across the bridge.[45]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^"BBC Where I Live" – BBC. Retrieved 2 March 2007.
  2. ^"Cow Green reservoir".ice.org.uk. 16 April 2018. Retrieved27 July 2020.
  3. ^abJames 2019, p. 270.
  4. ^"Environment Agency Tees Salmon Action Plan Map Page 4"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 3 February 2011. Retrieved13 December 2012.
  5. ^abcdeChisholm 1911.
  6. ^abcdef"OpenData support | OS Tools & Support".
  7. ^Tees at Barnard Castle in Dales Area – Artificial influences
  8. ^"Upper Teesdale Geology". Archived fromthe original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved16 December 2012.
  9. ^"BBC – Seven Wonders – High Force".
  10. ^abc"Tees Valley Geology". Retrieved16 December 2012.
  11. ^"Tees Dock; the Heart of Teesport"(PDF).pdports.co.uk. 1956. p. 3. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 31 December 2022. Retrieved27 July 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  12. ^Moorsom, Norman (1986).The book of Middlesbrough. Buckingham: Barracuda Books. p. 27.ISBN 0-86023-274-3.
  13. ^"River levels". Retrieved14 December 2012.
  14. ^"Natures World" Natures World Tees Feature
  15. ^"Cleveland's National Nature Reserves".gov.uk. Retrieved27 July 2020.
  16. ^IRUK 1888, p. 242.
  17. ^Wilford Wardell, John (1957).A History of Yarm; an Ancient North Riding Town. Yarm: Wardell. p. 123.OCLC 504283667.
  18. ^Leatherdale, Duncan (18 May 2019)."Where and what is Middlesbrough?".BBC News. Retrieved10 August 2019.
  19. ^IRUK 1888, p. 243.
  20. ^"Tees Navigation Company". Retrieved14 December 2012.
  21. ^The History of the River Tees in Maps, 3rd. Ed. (2001), D. W. Pattenden, published by Cleveland and Teesside Local History SocietyISBN 0-9507199-6-X
  22. ^"Construction starts on Quayside for the UK's premier offshore wind hub".Graham. 30 September 2021. Retrieved6 February 2022.
  23. ^"Creating UK's premier offshore wind hub through dredging".Dredging Today. 6 October 2021. Retrieved6 February 2022.
  24. ^Hudson, Ray (February 2019). "Industrial Teesside, lives and legacies: a post-industrial geography".Planning Perspectives.34 (1):183–185.doi:10.1080/02665433.2019.1555656.S2CID 151081453.
  25. ^Betteney, Alan (2018)."Industry in the Tees Valley"(PDF).static1.squarespace.com. Tees Valley Rediscovered. p. 33. Retrieved28 July 2020.
  26. ^Davison, Jez (23 June 2015)."Teesport gets fit for next generation as £22m upgrade takes shape".Gazette Live. Retrieved28 July 2020.
  27. ^Hughes, Mike (12 August 2016)."MGT Power Q&A: All you need to know about Teesside energy plant".Gazette Live. Retrieved28 July 2020.
  28. ^"SSI Redcar steelworks to be shut".BBC News. 12 October 2015. Retrieved28 July 2020.
  29. ^"EDF fully equips 62-MW offshore wind farm in UK – report".Renewables Now. 7 June 2013. Retrieved28 July 2020.
  30. ^"Able UK's TERRC yard on Teesside".BBC News. 23 November 2010. Retrieved28 July 2020.
  31. ^"Appraisal of Sustainability: Site Report for Hartlepool"(PDF).assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. October 2010. p. 15. Retrieved28 July 2020.
  32. ^Davies, Caroline (29 October 2021)."'Apocalyptic': dead crabs litter beaches in north-east England".The Guardian. Retrieved6 February 2022.
  33. ^Newton, Grace (26 November 2021)."Environment Agency confirm dead crabs and lobsters washed up on Yorkshire beaches were not killed by pollution".www.yorkshirepost.co.uk. Retrieved6 February 2022.
  34. ^Blackburne, Elaine (3 February 2022)."Reason behind deaths of thousands of shellfish on North East beaches".HullLive.ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved6 February 2022.
  35. ^"North East coast shellfish deaths blamed on harmful algae".BBC News. 3 February 2022. Retrieved6 February 2022.
  36. ^Monbiot, George (6 June 2022)."Are the dead shellfish littering our beaches evidence of a toxic waste cover-up? | George Monbiot".The Guardian. Archived fromthe original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved7 June 2022.
  37. ^O'Donnell, Elliot (2003).Ghosts, Helpful and Harmful (1924). Kessinger Publishing. p. 199.ISBN 9780766179080. Retrieved14 December 2012.
  38. ^Longstaffe, William Hylton Dyer (1854).The History and Antiquities of the Parish of Darlington, in the Bishoprick. Darlington and Stockton Times. Retrieved14 December 2012.
  39. ^Roalfe Cox, Marian (2003).Introduction to Folklore (1904). Kessinger Publishing.ISBN 9780766149403. Retrieved14 December 2012.
  40. ^abFitzpatrick, A. P.; Scott, Peter R. (1999). "The Roman Bridge at Piercebridge, North Yorkshire-County Durham".Britannia.30:111–132.doi:10.2307/526675.JSTOR 526675.S2CID 162361828.
  41. ^"Bridge over troubled water: Roman finds from the Tees at Piercebridge and beyond | The Past".The Past. Current Archarology. 4 August 2021. Retrieved4 March 2023.
  42. ^abHarrison, David (7 October 2004).The Bridges of Medieval England: Transport and Society 400-1800. OUP Oxford.ISBN 978-0-19-155679-1.
  43. ^abcWarwick, Tosh."The Politics of Bridge Building: The Long Wait for the Tees (Newport) Bridge".Cleveland & Teesside Local History Society. 1 January 2011. Retrieved4 March 2023.
  44. ^Rennison, Robert William (2019)."The Great Inundation of 1771 and the Rebuilding of the North-East's Bridges"(PDF).Archaeologia Aeliana.29: 269291.doi:10.5284/1061067. Retrieved3 March 2023.
  45. ^abcBetteney, Alan (2019)."Crossing the Tees: Fords, Ferries and Bridges"(PDF).River Tees Rediscovered. Tees Archaeology:31–32. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 13 March 2023. Retrieved4 March 2023.

Sources

[edit]

External links

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