ThePythonidae, commonly known aspythons, are afamily ofnonvenomoussnakes found in Africa, Asia, and Australia. Among its members are some of the largest snakes in the world. Tengenera and 39species are currently recognized. Being naturally non-venomous, pythons must constrict their prey to induce cardiac arrest prior to consumption. Pythons will typically strike at and bite their prey of choice to gain hold of it; they then must use physical strength to constrict their prey, by coiling their muscular bodies around the animal, effectively suffocating it before swallowing whole. This is in stark contrast to venomous snakes such as therattlesnake, for example, which delivers a swift, venomous bite but releases, waiting as the prey succumbs toenvenomation before being consumed. Collectively, the pythons are well-documented and studied as constrictors, much like other non-venomous snakes, including theboas and evenkingsnakes of the New World.[2]
Pythons are indigenous to the Old World Tropics, including sub-Saharan Africa, tropical to subtropical Asia, and Australia, Pythons are ambush predators that primarily kill prey by constriction, causing cardiac arrest. Pythons are oviparous, laying eggs that females incubate until they hatch. They possess premaxillary teeth, with the exception of adults in the Australian genusAspidites.[3][4] While many species are available in the exotic pet trade, caution is needed with larger species due to potential danger. The taxonomy of pythons has evolved, and they are now known to be more closely related to sunbeam snakes and the Mexican burrowing python.[citation needed]
Pythons are frequently poached for their skins, with the export market for skins fromSoutheast Asia estimated at a billion dollars in 2012. They are also sold and consumed as meat. They can carry diseases, such as salmonella and leptospirosis, which can be transmitted to humans. Pythons are also used in African traditional medicine to treat ailments like rheumatism and mental illnesses. Their body parts, including blood and organs, are believed to have various healing properties. In some African cultures, pythons have significant roles in folklore and mythology, often symbolizing strength or having sacred status.
Two known populations of invasive pythons exist in the Western Hemisphere. In the United States, an introduced population ofBurmese pythons (Python bivittatus) has existed as aninvasive species inEverglades National Park since the late 1990s. As of January 2023, estimates place the Floridian Burmese python population at around half a million. Local bounties are awarded and scientists study dead Burmese pythons to better understand breeding cycles and trends associated with rapid population explosion. The pythons readily prey on native North American fauna in Florida, including (but not limited to)American alligators, birds,bobcats,American bullfrogs,opossums,raccoons,river otters,white-tailed deer, and occasionally domestic pets and livestock. They are also known to prey on other invasive and introduced animals to Florida, such as thegreen iguana andnutria (coypu), though not at a rate as to lower their numbers rapidly or effectively.[5]
InPuerto Rico, a population ofreticulated pythons (Malayopython reticulatus) are known to be currently established, with a remarkably high rate ofalbinism, suggesting establishment from domesticated pet stock. Records of reticulated pythons date back to as early as 2009, and the population was recognized as established by 2017.[6]
Many species have been hunted aggressively, which has greatly reduced the population of some, such as theIndian python (Python molurus) and theball python (Python regius).[7][8]
Most members of this family areambush predators, in that they typically remain motionless in a camouflaged position, and then strike suddenly at passing prey. Attacks on humans, although known to occur, are extremely rare.[9][10]
Pythons use their sharp, backward-curving teeth, four rows in the upper jaw, two in the lower, to grasp prey which is then killed byconstriction; after an animal has been grasped to restrain it, the python quickly wraps a number of coils around it.[11][12] Death occurs primarily bycardiac arrest.[11][12] Even the larger species, such as thereticulated python (Malayopython reticulatus), do not crush their prey to death.[13]
Larger specimens usually eat animals about the size of a domestic cat, but larger food items are known; some large Asian species have been known to take down adultdeer, and theCentral African rock python (Python sebae) has been known to eatantelope. Thereticulated python is the only python species known to sometimes eat humans in its natural habitat in Sulawesi, Indonesia.[14] All prey is swallowed whole, and may take several days or even weeks to fully digest.
Pythons areoviparous. This sets them apart from the familyBoidae (boas), most of which bear live young (ovoviviparous). After they lay their eggs, females typically incubate them until they hatch. This is achieved by causing the muscles to "shiver", which raises the temperature of the body to a certain degree, and thus that of the eggs. Keeping the eggs at a constant temperature is essential for healthy embryo development. During the incubation period, females do not eat and leave only to bask to raise their body temperature.
Most species in this family are available in the exotic pet trade. However, caution must be exercised with the larger species, as they can be dangerous; rare cases of large specimens killing their owners have been documented.[15][16]
Obsolete classification schemes—such as that ofBoulenger (1890)—place pythons in Pythoninae, asubfamily of the boa family,Boidae.[1] However, despite a superficial resemblance to boas, pythons are more closely related to the sunbeam snakes (Xenopeltis) and the Mexican burrowing python (Loxocemus).[17][18]
Trade in python skins is a lucrative business with the export market from Southeast Asia estimated at US$1 billion as of 2012.[20] Much of the trade is illegal, and python farming is very expensive.[21] Pythons are poached for their meat, mostly consumed locally asbushmeat, and their skin, which is sent to Europe and North America for manufacture of accessories like bags, belts and shoes.[22]
InCameroon bushmeat markets, theCentral African rock python (Python sebae) is sold for meat.[22] Hunting, killing and selling pythons is illegal inCameroon under national wildlife law, but there is little to no enforcement.[22]
Pythons are not venomous, but like other reptiles, they can be vectors for infections that affect humans, such assalmonella. Such diseases may be transmitted to humans through excreted waste, open wounds, and contaminated water.[23][24][25]
Pythons are also integrated into some aspects of African health and belief use, often with the added risk of contacting zoonotic diseases. Python bodies and blood are used for African traditional medicines and other belief uses as well, one in-depth study of all animals used by the Yorubas of Nigeria for traditional medicine found that the African Python is used to cure rheumatism, snake poison, appeasing witches, and accident prevention.[citation needed]
Python habitats, diets, and invasion into new areas also impact human health and prosperity. A University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences study found that theBurmese python, as an invasive species, enters new habitats and eats an increasing number of mammals, leaving limited species for mosquitoes to bite, forcing them to bite disease-carryinghispid cotton rats and then infect humans with theEverglades virus, a dangerous infection that is carried by very few animals.[26] While direct human-python interactions can be potentially dangerous, the risk of zoonotic diseases is always a concern, whether considering medical and belief use in Nigeria or when addressing invasive species impacts in Florida. In 2022, a woman who lived near a lake area in south-easternNew South Wales state,Australia, was found to be infested with theOphidascaris robertsi roundworm which is common incarpet pythons - non-venomous snakes found across much of Australia.[27]
Python skin has traditionally been used as the attire of choice for medicine men and healers.[28] Typically,South AfricanZulu traditional healers will use python skin in ceremonial regalia.[28] Pythons are viewed by the Zulu tradition to be a sign of power. Healers are seen as all-powerful since they have a wealth of knowledge, as well as accessibility to the ancestors.[28]
Typically, species are attributed to healing various ailments based on their likeliness to a specific bodily attribute. For example, in many cultures, the python is seen as a strong and powerful creature. As a result, pythons are often prescribed as a method of increasing strength.[28] It is very common for the body fat of pythons to be used to treat a large variation of issues such asjoint pain,rheumatic pain,toothache andeye sight.[citation needed] Additionally, python fat has been used to treat those suffering from mental illnesses likepsychosis.[29] Their calm nature is thought to be of use to treat combative patients. The fat of the python is rubbed onto the body part that is in pain. To improve mental illnesses, it is often rubbed on the temple.[citation needed] The existence of evidence for genuine anti inflammatory and anti-microbial properties of the refined 'snake oil' is ironic with respect to the expression "snake oil salesman".[30]
The Sukuma tribe ofTanzania have been known to use pythonfeces in order to treat back pain. The feces are frequently mixed with a little water, placed on the back, and left for two to three days.[31]
In Nigeria, thegallbladder andliver of a python are used to treat poison or bites from other snakes.[citation needed] The python head has been used to "appease witches". Many traditional African cultures believe that they can be cursed by witches. In order to reverse spells and bad luck, traditional doctors will prescribe python heads.[citation needed]
In northwesternGhana, people see pythons as a savior and have taboos to prevent the snake from being harmed or eaten. Their folklore states that this is because a python once helped them flee from their enemies by transforming into a log to allow them to cross a river.[32]
InBenin, Vodun practitioners believe that pythons symbolize strength and the spirit of Dagbe ["to do good" inYoruba]. Annually, people sacrifice animals and proclaim their sins to pythons that are kept inside temples.[33]
^Falodun, A.; Owolabi, O. J.; Osahon, O. (2008). "Physicochemical, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory evaluation of fixed oil from Boa constrictor".Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica.65 (4):477–480.PMID19051590.
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