James VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) wasKing of Scotland asJames VI from 24 July 1567 andKing of England andIreland asJames I from theunion of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 untilhis death in 1625. Though he long attempted to get both countries to adopt a closer political union, the kingdoms ofScotland andEngland remainedsovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciaries, and laws, ruled by James inpersonal union.

James was the son ofMary, Queen of Scots, and a great-great-grandson ofHenry VII, King of England and Lord of Ireland, and thus a potential successor to all three thrones. He acceded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother was forced toabdicate. Although his mother was a Catholic, James was raised as a Protestant. Fourregents governed during hisminority, which ended officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583. In 1589, he marriedAnne of Denmark. Three of their children survived to adulthood:Henry Frederick,Elizabeth, andCharles. In 1603, Jamessucceeded his cousin Elizabeth I, the lastTudor monarch of England and Ireland, who died childless. He reigned in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known as theJacobean era, until his death in 1625. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, returning to Scotland only once, in 1617, andstyled himself "King of Great Britain and Ireland". He advocated for a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, thePlantation of Ulster andEnglish colonisation of the Americas began. (Full article...)

Frederick II (German:Friedrich II.; 24 January 1712 – 17 August 1786) was the monarch ofPrussia from 1740 until his death in 1786. He was the lastHohenzollern monarch titledKing in Prussia, declaring himselfKing of Prussia after annexingRoyal Prussia from thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772. His most significant accomplishments include military successes in theSilesian wars, reorganisation of thePrussian Army, theFirst Partition of Poland, and patronage of the arts andthe Enlightenment. Prussia greatly increased its territories and became a major military power in Europe under his rule. He became known asFrederick the Great (German:Friedrich der Große) and was nicknamed "Old Fritz" (German:der Alte Fritz).

In his youth, Prince Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than war, which led to clashes with his authoritarian father,Frederick William I of Prussia. However, upon ascending to the throne, he attacked and annexed the richAustrian province ofSilesia in 1742, winning military acclaim. He became an influential military theorist, whose analyses emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. (Full article...)

Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor, andWallis, Duchess of Windsor, visitedNazi Germany in October 1937. Edward hadabdicated the British throne in December 1936, and his brotherGeorge VI had become king. Edward had been given the titleDuke of Windsor and married Wallis Simpson in June 1937. He appeared to have been sympathetic to Germany in this period and, that September, announced his intention to travel privately to Germany to tour factories. His interests, officially researching the social and economic conditions of theworking classes, were against the backdrop of looming war in Europe. The Duke's supporters saw him as a potential peacemaker between Britain and Germany, but theBritish government refused to sanction such a role, opposed the tour and suspected that the Nazis would use the Duke's presence for propaganda. Prince Edward was keen for his wife, who had been rejected by theBritish establishment, to experience astate visit as his consort. He promised the government to keep a low profile, and the tour went ahead between 12 and 23 October 1937.

The Duke and the Duchess, who were officially invited to the country by theGerman Labour Front, were chaperoned for much of their visit by its leader,Robert Ley. The couple visited factories, many of which were producingmateriel for the rearmament effort, and the Duke inspected German troops. The Windsors were greeted by theBritish national anthem andNazi salutes. They dined with high-ranking Nazis such asJoseph Goebbels,Hermann Göring,Joachim von Ribbentrop, andAlbert Speer, and had tea withAdolf Hitler inBerchtesgaden. The Duke had a long private conversation with Hitler, but it is uncertain what they discussed, as the minutes of their meeting were lost during the war. The Duchess took afternoon tea with Hitler's deputy,Rudolf Hess. Hitler was sympathetic to the Windsors and treated the Duchess like royalty. (Full article...)

Demetrius III Theos Philopator Soter Philometor Euergetes Callinicus (Ancient Greek:Δημήτριος θεός Φιλοπάτωρ σωτήρ Φιλομήτωρ Εὐεργέτης Καλλίνικος, surnamedEucaerus; between 124 and 109 BC – after 87 BC) was aHellenisticSeleucid monarch who reigned as theKing of Syria between 96 and 87 BC. He was a son ofAntiochus VIII and, most likely, his Egyptian wifeTryphaena. Demetrius III's early life was spent in a period of civil war between his father and his uncleAntiochus IX, which ended with the assassination of Antiochus VIII in 96 BC. After the death of their father, Demetrius III took control ofDamascus while his brotherSeleucus VI prepared for war against Antiochus IX, who occupied the Syrian capitalAntioch.

The civil war dragged on; Seleucus VI eliminated his uncle, whose heirAntiochus X counterattacked and drove Seleucus VI to his death. Then the twinsAntiochus XI andPhilip I, brothers of Demetrius III, attempted to avenge Seleucus VI; it ended with the death of Antiochus XI and the interference of Demetrius III on the side of Philip I in a war against Antiochus X that probably lasted until 88 BC. In 89 BC, Demetrius III invadedJudaea and crushed the forces of its king,Alexander Jannaeus; his near victory was cut short by the death of Antiochus X. Demetrius III rushed to Antioch before Philip I could take advantage of the power vacuum and strengthen his position relative to Demetrius III. (Full article...)

Eardwulf (fl. 790 –c. 830) wasking of Northumbria from 796 to 806, when he was deposed and went into exile. He may have had a second reign from 808 until perhaps 811 or 830. Northumbria in the last years of the eighth century was the scene of dynastic strife between several noble families: in 790, kingÆthelred I attempted to have Eardwulf assassinated. Eardwulf's survival may have been viewed as a sign of divine favour. A group of nobles conspired to assassinate Æthelred in April 796 and he was succeeded byOsbald: Osbald's reign lasted only twenty-seven days before he was deposed and Eardwulf became king on 14 May 796.

Little is recorded of Eardwulf's family, though his father, also named Eardwulf, is known to have been a nobleman. Eardwulf was married by the time he became king, though his wife's name is not recorded. It is possible he later wed an illegitimate daughter ofCharlemagne. In 798, early in his reign, Eardwulf fought a battle at Billington Moor against a nobleman named Wada, who had been one of those who killed King Æthelred. Wada was defeated and driven into exile. In 801, Eardwulf led an army againstCoenwulf ofMercia, perhaps because of Coenwulf's support for other claimants to the Northumbrian throne. (Full article...)

Henry I (c. 1068 – 1 December 1135), also known asHenry Beauclerc, wasKing of England from 1100 to his death in 1135. He was the fourth son ofWilliam the Conqueror and was educated inLatin and theliberal arts. On William's death in 1087, Henry's elder brothersRobert Curthose andWilliam Rufus inheritedNormandy and England, respectively, thereby leaving Henry landless. He subsequently purchased the County ofCotentin in western Normandy from Robert, but his brothers deposed him in 1091. He gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William Rufus against Robert.

When William died in a hunting accident, Henry seized the English throne ahead of Robert, promising at his coronation to correct many of William's less popular policies. He marriedMatilda of Scotland and they had two surviving children,Empress Matilda andWilliam Adelin. Robert disputed Henry's control of England and invaded from Normandy in 1101. The ensuing military campaign ended in a negotiated settlement that confirmed Henry as king. The peace was short-lived, however, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at theBattle of Tinchebray. Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry's control of Normandy was subsequently challenged byLouis VI of France,Baldwin VII of Flanders andFulk V of Anjou, who promoted the rival claims of Robert's son,William Clito, and supported a major rebellion in the Duchy between 1116 and 1119. Following Henry's victory at theBattle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120. (Full article...)

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/mænˈdɛlə/man-DEL-ə,Xhosa:[xolíɬaɬamandɛ̂ːla]; bornRolihlahla Mandela; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South Africananti-apartheid activist and statesman who was the firstpresident of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's firstBlack head of state and the first elected in afully representative democratic election.His administration focused on dismantling the legacy ofapartheid by fostering racialreconciliation, anational peace accord and eventualmultiracial democracy. Ideologically anAfrican nationalist andsocialist, he served as the president of theAfrican National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.


Mandela was born into theThembu royal family inMvezo, South Africa. He studied law at theUniversity of Fort Hare and theUniversity of Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer inJohannesburg. There he became involved inanti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding itsYouth League in 1944. After theNational Party'swhite-only government established apartheid, a system ofracial segregation that privilegedwhites, Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC'sTransvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952Defiance Campaign and the 1955Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested forseditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the1956 Treason Trial. Influenced byMarxism, he secretly joined the bannedSouth African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militantuMkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 that led asabotage campaign against the apartheid government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and, following theRivonia Trial, was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state. (Full article...)

Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known asEdward Longshanks and theHammer of the Scots (Latin:Malleus Scotorum), wasKing of England from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he wasLord of Ireland, and from 1254 to 1306 ruledGascony asDuke of Aquitaine in his capacity as avassal of theFrench king. Before his accession to the throne, he was commonly referred to asthe Lord Edward.

The eldest son ofHenry III, Edward was involved from an early age in the political intrigues of his father's reign. In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting theProvisions of Oxford. After reconciling with his father, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as theSecond Barons' War. After theBattle of Lewes, Edward was heldhostage by the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and defeated the baronial leaderSimon de Montfort at theBattle of Evesham in 1265. Within two years, the rebellion was extinguished and, with England pacified, Edward left to join theNinth Crusade to theHoly Land in 1270. He was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed of his father's death. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and wascrowned atWestminster Abbey. (Full article...)

Abu Mansur Nizar ibn al-Mustansir (Arabic:أبو منصور نزار بن المستنصر,romanized: Abū Manṣūr Nizār ibn al-Mustanṣir; 1045–1095) was aFatimid prince, and the oldest son of the eighthFatimid caliph and eighteenthIsma'iliimam,al-Mustansir. When his father died in December 1094, the powerfulvizier,al-Afdal Shahanshah, raised Nizar's younger brotheral-Musta'li to the throne inCairo, bypassing the claims of Nizar and other older sons of al-Mustansir. Nizar escaped Cairo, rebelled and seizedAlexandria, where he reigned as caliph with theregnal nameal-Mustafa li-Din Allah (Arabic:المصطفى لدين الله,romanized: al-Muṣṭafā li-Dīn Allāh). In late 1095 he was defeated and taken prisoner to Cairo, where he was executed byimmurement.

During the 12th century, some of Nizar's actual or claimed descendants tried, without success, to seize the throne from the Fatimid caliphs. Many Isma'ilis, especially inPersia, rejected al-Musta'li's imamate and considered Nizar as the rightful imam. As a result, they split off from the Fatimid regime and founded theNizari branch of Isma'ilism, with their own line of imams who claimed descent from Nizar. This line continues to this day in the person of theAga Khan. (Full article...)

King Arthur (Welsh:Brenin Arthur;Cornish:Arthur Gernow;Breton:Roue Arzhur;French:Roi Arthur) was a legendary king ofBritain. He is afolk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as theMatter of Britain.

InWelsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a leader of thepost-Roman Britons in battles against theAnglo-Saxons in the late-5th and early-6th centuries. He first appears in twoearly medieval historical sources, theAnnales Cambriae and theHistoria Brittonum, but these date to 300 years after he is supposed to have lived, and most historians who study the perioddo not consider him a historical figure. His name also occurs in earlyWelsh poetic sources, such asY Gododdin. The character developed throughWelsh mythology, appearing either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure offolklore, and was sometimes associated with the Welsh otherworldAnnwn. (Full article...)

Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002) wasQueen of the United Kingdom and theDominions of theBritish Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 to 6 February 1952 as the wife ofKing George VI. She was also the lastEmpress of India from 1936 until theBritish Raj was dissolved on 15 August 1947. Afterher husband died, she was officially known asQueen Elizabeth the Queen Mother to avoid confusion with her daughterQueen Elizabeth II.

Born into a family ofBritish nobility, Elizabeth came to prominence in 1923 whenshe married Prince Albert, Duke of York, the second son ofKing George V andQueen Mary. The couple and their daughters, Elizabeth andMargaret, embodied traditional ideas of family and public service. As Duchess of York, Elizabeth undertook a variety of public engagements and became known for her consistently cheerful countenance. (Full article...)

Manuel Marques de Sousa, Count of Porto Alegre (13 June 1804 – 18 July 1875), nicknamed "the Gloved Centaur", was a Brazilian army officer, politician andabolitionist. Born into a wealthy family of military background, Manuel Marques de Sousa joined thePortuguese Army in Brazil in 1817 when he was little more than a child. His military initiation occurred in theconquest of the Banda Oriental (Eastern Bank), which was annexed and became the southernmost Brazilian province ofCisplatina in 1821. For most of the 1820s, he was embroiled in the Brazilian effort to keep Cisplatina as part of its territory: first during thestruggle for Brazilian independence and then in theCisplatine War. It would ultimately prove a futile attempt, as Cisplatina successfully separated from Brazil to become the independent nation ofUruguay in 1828.

A few years later, in 1835 his native province ofRio Grande do Sul was engulfed in a secessionist rebellion, theRagamuffin War. The conflict lasted for almost ten years, and the Count was leading military engagements for most of that time. He played a decisive role in saving the provincial capital from the Ragamuffin rebels, allowing forces loyal to the legitimate government to secure a key foothold. In 1852, he led a Brazilian division during thePlatine War in an invasion of theArgentine Confederation that overthrew its dictator. He was awarded a noble title, eventually raised from baron to viscount and finally to count. (Full article...)

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ismail also known asMuhammad IV (14 April 1315 – 25 August 1333), was the ruler of theEmirate of Granada on theIberian Peninsula from 1325 to 1333. He was the sixth Sultan of theNasrid dynasty, succeeding to the throne at ten years old when his father,Ismail I (r. 1314–1325), was assassinated.

The initial years of his reign were marked by conflict among his ministers, who vied for control of the young sultan's government. This escalated into a civil war between the party of thevizierMuhammad ibn al-Mahruq and that of the powerful commander of theVolunteers of the Faith,Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula. Uthman declared Muhammad's uncle, Muhammad ibn Faraj, as a rival sultan and secured support fromAlfonso XI of Castile (r. 1312–1350), Granada's Christian neighbour to the north. Muhammad IV requested help fromAbu Said Uthman II (r. 1310–1331) of theMarinid Sultanate in Morocco and gave him territories in the Iberian Peninsula, includingRonda,Marbella, andAlgeciras, probably in exchange for Marinid troops. The civil war ended in 1328 when Muhammad, who despite his youth had begun taking a more active role in government, reconciled with Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, and ordered Ibn al-Mahruq assassinated; the pretender Muhammad ibn Faraj was sent to North Africa. In 1329 he appointed his childhood tutorAbu Nuaym Ridwan as thehajib (chamberlain), outranking his other ministers; this was the first time the title appeared in the Emirate of Granada. (Full article...)

DomPedro II (Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga; 2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891), known as"the Magnanimous" (Portuguese:O Magnânimo), was thesecond and final emperor of theEmpire of Brazil. He reigned from 1831 until his deposition in themilitary coup of 1889, presiding over the longest and most stable reign in Brazilian history.

Born inRio de Janeiro, Pedro II was the seventh child ofEmperor Pedro I andEmpress Maria Leopoldina.His father's abdication and departure for Europe in 1831 left the five-year-old prince as emperor, ushering in a regency period marked by political instability and shaping a childhood dominated by rigorous education and preparation for rule. These formative years profoundly influenced his character, instilling a strong sense of duty, intellectual curiosity, and devotion to public service, alongside a growing personal ambivalence toward monarchy. (Full article...)

Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) wasKing of Scotland from 1649 until 1651 andKing of England, Scotland, andIreland from the1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death in 1685.

Charles II was the eldest surviving child ofCharles I of England, Scotland and Ireland andHenrietta Maria of France. AfterCharles I's execution atWhitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of theEnglish Civil War, theParliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II king on 5 February 1649. However, England entered the period known as theEnglish Interregnum or theEnglish Commonwealth with a republican government eventually led byOliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at theBattle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, and Charlesfled to mainland Europe. Cromwell becameLord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, theDutch Republic and theSpanish Netherlands. A political crisis after Cromwell's death in 1658 resulted in therestoration of the monarchy in 1660, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. (Full article...)