Geography (fromAncient Greekγεωγραφίαgeōgraphía; combininggê 'Earth' andgráphō 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena ofEarth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth andits human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, manyconcepts can be applied more broadly to othercelestial bodies in the field ofplanetary science. Geography has been called "a bridge betweennatural science andsocial science disciplines."
Thehistory of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. Geography as a discipline dates back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BC in ancientBabylon. Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to GreekEratosthenes of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC). The first recorded use of the wordγεωγραφία was as the title of a book by Greek scholarClaudius Ptolemy (100 – 170 AD). During the Middle Ages, geography was influenced by Islamic scholars, likeMuhammad al-Idrisi, producing detailed maps of the world. TheAge of Discovery was influential in the development of geography, as European explorers mapped theNew World. Modern developments include the development ofgeomatics andgeographic information science.
The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale. Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. The main branches of geography arephysical geography,human geography, andtechnical geography. Physical geography focuses on the natural environment, human geography focuses on how humans interact with the Earth, and technical geography focuses on the development of tools for understanding geography. Techniques employed can generally be broken down intoquantitative andqualitative approaches, with many studies takingmixed-methods approaches. Common techniques includecartography,remote sensing,interviews, andsurveying. (Full article...)
The Ham Wall reserve was constructed originally to providereed bed habitat for theEurasian bittern, which at the time was at a very low population level in the UK. The site is divided into several sections with independently controllable water levels, and machinery and cattle are used to maintain the quality of the reed beds. There are important breeding populations of wetland birds including the rarelittle bittern andgreat white egret, and the area hosts several other uncommon animals and plants. The RSPB works with other organisations as part of theAvalon Marshes Partnership to coordinate conservation issues across the Somerset Levels. (Full article...)
Mount Sylvania in Portland, Oregon, one of the major volcanoes in the field
TheBoring Lava Field (also known as theBoring Volcanic Field) is aPlio-Pleistocenevolcanic field ofcinder cones, smallshield volcanoes, andlava flows in the northernWillamette Valley of the U.S. state ofOregon and adjacent southwestWashington. The volcanic field is named for the town ofBoring, Oregon, located 12 miles (20 km) southeast of downtownPortland and on the edge of the densest cluster of volcanic vents. The zone became volcanically active about 2.7million years ago, with long periods of eruptive activity interspersed with quiescence. Its last eruptions took place about 57,000 years ago at the Beacon Rock cinder cone volcano. The individual volcanic vents of the field are consideredextinct, but the field itself is not.
The Boring Lava Field covers an area of about 1,500 square miles (3,900 km2) and has a total volume of 2.4 cubic miles (10 km3). This region sustains diverse flora and fauna within its habitat areas, which are subject to Portland's moderate climate. The highest point of the field is atLarch Mountain, which reaches an elevation of 4,055 feet (1,236 m). (Full article...)
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One of Molyneux's celestial globes, which is displayed inMiddle Temple Library – from the frontispiece of theHakluyt Society's 1889 reprint ofA Learned Treatise of Globes, both Cœlestiall and Terrestriall, one of the English editions of Robert Hues'Latin workTractatus de Globis (1594)
Molyneux was known as amathematician and maker ofmathematical instruments such ascompasses andhourglasses. He became acquainted with many prominent men of the day, including the writerRichard Hakluyt and the mathematiciansRobert Hues andEdward Wright. He also knew the explorersThomas Cavendish,Francis Drake,Walter Raleigh andJohn Davis. Davis probably introduced Molyneux to his own patron, the London merchant William Sanderson, who largely financed the construction of the globes. When completed, the globes were presented toElizabeth I. Larger globes were acquired by royalty, noblemen and academic institutions, while smaller ones were purchased as practical navigation aids for sailors and students. The globes were the first to be made in such a way that they were unaffected by the humidity at sea, and they came into general use on ships. (Full article...)
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Mount Mazama collapsed into a caldera, which filled with water to formCrater Lake
Mount Mazama (Klamath:Tum-sum-ne) is acomplex volcano in the western U.S. state ofOregon, in a segment of theCascade Volcanic Arc andCascade Range. Thevolcano is inKlamath County, in the southern Cascades, 60 miles (97 km) north of the Oregon–California border. Its collapse, due to the eruption ofmagma emptying the underlyingmagma chamber, formed acaldera that holdsCrater Lake (Giiwas in theKlamath language). Mount Mazama originally had an elevation of approximately 12,000 feet (3,700 m), but following its climactic eruption this was reduced to 8,157 feet (2,486 m). Crater Lake is 1,943 feet (592 m) deep, the deepest freshwater body in the U.S. and the second deepest in North America afterGreat Slave Lake in Canada.
Mount Mazama formed as a group of overlapping volcanic edifices such asshield volcanoes and smallcomposite cones, becoming active intermittently until its climactic eruption 7,700 years ago. This eruption, the largest known within the Cascade Volcanic Arc in a million years, destroyed Mazama's summit, reducing its approximate 12,000-foot (3,700 m) height by about 1 mile (1,600 m). Much of the edifice fell into the volcano's partially emptied neck and magma chamber, creating a caldera. The region's volcanic activity results from the subduction of the offshoreoceanic plate, and is influenced by local extensional faulting. Mazama is dormant, but theU.S. Geological Survey says eruptions on a smaller scale are likely, which would pose a threat to its surroundings. (Full article...)
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Antarctica (/ænˈtɑːrktɪkə/ⓘ) isEarth's southernmost and least-populatedcontinent. Situated almost entirely south of theAntarctic Circle and surrounded by theSouthern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographicSouth Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger thanEurope, and has an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by theAntarctic ice sheet, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi).
Lava Fork volcano is associated with a small group of volcanoes called theIskut volcanic field. This forms part of the much largerNorthern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, which extends from theAlaska–Yukon border to near the port city ofPrince Rupert, British Columbia. Eruptive activity at The Volcano is relatively young compared to most other volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. Geologic studies have shown that The Volcano and its eruptive products were emplaced in the last 400 years; this is well after thelast glacial period, which ended about 10,000 years ago. (Full article...)
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Theorca (Orcinus orca), orkiller whale, is atoothed whale and the largest member of theoceanic dolphin family. The onlyextant species in the genusOrcinus, it is recognizable by its distinct pigmentation; being mostly black on top, white on the bottom and having recognizable white eye patches. Acosmopolitan species, it inhabits a wide range of marine environments, fromArctic toAntarctic regions to tropical seas, but is more commonly documented in temperate or cooler coastal waters. Scientists have proposed dividing the global population intoraces,subspecies, or possibly evenspecies.
Orcas areapex predators with a diverse diet.Individual populations often specialize in particular types of prey, includingbony fish,sharks,rays, andmarine mammals such asseals,dolphins, and whales. They are highlysocial, with some populations forming stablematrilineal family groups (pods). Their sophisticated hunting techniques and vocal behaviors, often unique to specific groups and passed down from generation to generation, are considered to be manifestations ofanimal culture. The most studied populations are off the west coast of North America, which include fish-eating "residents", mammal-eating "transients", and offshores. (Full article...)
TheMetacomet Ridge,Metacomet Ridge Mountains, orMetacomet Range of southernNew England is a narrow and steepfault-block mountain ridge known for its extensive cliff faces, scenic vistas,microclimate ecosystems, and rare or endangered plants. The ridge is an important recreation resource located within 10 miles (16 km) of more than 1.5 million people, offering four long-distance hiking trails and over a dozen parks and recreation areas, including several historic sites. It has been the focus of ongoing conservation efforts because of its natural, historic, and recreational value, involving municipal, state, and national agencies and nearly two dozen non-profit organizations.
The Metacomet Ridge extends fromBranford, Connecticut, onLong Island Sound, through theConnecticut River Valley region ofMassachusetts, to northernFranklin County, Massachusetts, 2 miles (3 km) short of theVermont andNew Hampshire borders for a distance of 100 miles (160 km). It is geologically distinct from the nearbyAppalachian Mountains and surrounding uplands, and is composed of volcanicbasalt (also known astrap rock) andsedimentary rock in faulted and tilted layers many hundreds of feet thick. In most cases, the basalt layers are dominant, prevalent, and exposed. The ridge rises dramatically from much lower valley elevations, although only 1,200 feet (370 m) above sea level at its highest, with an average summit elevation of 725 feet (221 m). (Full article...)
Huaynaputina has erupted several times during theHolocene, including on 19February 1600 – the largest recorded eruption ever witnessed inSouth America – which continued with a series of events into March. Witnessed by people in the city ofArequipa, it killed at least 1,000–1,500 people in the region, wiped out vegetation, buried the surrounding area with 2 metres (7 ft) of volcanic rock, and damaged infrastructure and economic resources. The eruption had a significant impact on Earth's climate, causing avolcanic winter: temperatures in theNorthern Hemisphere decreased; cold waves hit parts of Europe, Asia, and the Americas; and the climate disruption may have played a role in the onset of theLittle Ice Age. Floods, famines, and social upheavals resulted, including a probable link with the Russianfamine of 1601–1603 andTime of Troubles. This eruption has been computed to measure 6 on theVolcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). (Full article...)
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Wildwood Trail in June 2008
Forest Park is a publicmunicipal park in theTualatin Mountains west of downtownPortland, Oregon, United States. Stretching for more than 8 miles (13 km) on hillsides overlooking theWillamette River, it is one of the country's largesturban forest reserves. The park, a major component of a regional system of parks and trails, covers more than 5,100 acres (2,064 ha) of mostlysecond-growth forest with a few patches ofold growth. More than 80 miles (130 km) of recreational trails, including the Wildwood Trail segment of the city's40-Mile Loop system, crisscross the park.
As early as the 1860s, civic leaders sought to create a natural preserve in the woods near Portland. Their efforts led to the creation of a municipal park commission that in 1903 hired theOlmsted Brothers landscape architectural firm to developa plan for Portland's parks. Acquiring land through donations, transfers from Multnomah County, and delinquent taxforeclosures, the city eventually acted on a proposal by theCity Club of Portland and combined parcels totaling about 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) to create the reserve. Formally dedicated in 1948, it ranks 19th in size among parks within U.S. cities, according to theTrust for Public Land. (Full article...)
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Stone commemorative marker atLiterary Hall in Romney, West Virginia
TheRomney Literary Society (also known as theLiterary Society of Romney) existed from January 30, 1819, to February 15, 1886, inRomney, West Virginia. Established as thePolemic Society of Romney, it became the first organization of its kind in the present-day state of West Virginia, and one of the first in the United States. The society was founded by nine prominent men of Romney with the objectives of advancing literature and science, purchasing and maintaining a library, and improving educational opportunities.
The society debated an extensive range of scientific and social topics, often violating its own rules which banned religious and political subjects. Even though its membership was relatively small, its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout thePotomac Highlands region, and the organization greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas. (Full article...)
TheWillamette River (/wɪˈlæmɪt/ⓘwil-AM-it) is a majortributary of theColumbia River, accounting for 12 to 15 percent of the Columbia's flow. The Willamette'smain stem is 187 miles (301 km) long, lying entirely in northwesternOregon in the United States. Flowing northward between theOregon Coast Range and theCascade Range, the river and its tributaries form theWillamette Valley, a basin that contains two-thirds of Oregon's population, including the state capital,Salem, and the state's largest city,Portland, which surrounds the Willamette's mouth at the Columbia.
Originally created byplate tectonics about 35 million years ago and subsequently altered byvolcanism and erosion, the river'sdrainage basin was significantly modified by theMissoula Floods at the end of themost recent ice age. Humans began living in the watershed over 10,000 years ago. There were once many tribal villages along the lower river and in the area around its mouth on the Columbia. Indigenous peoples lived throughout the upper reaches of the basin as well. (Full article...)
It lies within thehistoric county boundaries ofCheshire, and became part of Greater Manchester in 1974. Altrincham developed as amarket town following the right to hold a market being granted in 1290; the market continues today. Furthersocioeconomic development came with the extension of theBridgewater Canal to Altrincham in 1765 and the arrival of the railway in 1849, stimulating industrial activity in the town. Outlying villages were absorbed by Altrincham's subsequent growth, along with the grounds ofDunham Massey Hall, formerly the home of theEarl of Stamford, and now a tourist attraction with three Grade IListed Buildings and a deer park. (Full article...)
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Map ofLajjun Sanjak, the territory governed by the Turabay dynasty for most of the 16th and 17th centuries
During theconquest of the Levant and Egypt by theOttoman Empire in 1516–1517, the Turabay chief Qaraja and his son Turabay aided the forces of Ottoman SultanSelim I. The Ottomans kept them in their Mamluk-era role as guardians of the strategicVia Maris andDamascus–Jerusalem highways and rewarded them withtax farms in northern Palestine. Their territory became a sanjak in 1559 and Turabay's son Ali became its first governor. His brother Assaf was appointed in 1573, serving for ten years before being dismissed and exiled toRhodes for involvement in a rebellion. His nephew Turabay was appointed in 1589 and remained in office until his death in 1601. His son and successor Ahmad, the most prominent chief of the dynasty, ruled Lajjun for nearly a half-century and repulsed attempts by the powerfulDruze chief and Ottoman governor ofSidon-Beirut andSafed,Fakhr al-Din Ma'n, to take over Lajjun andNablus in the 1620s. He consolidated the family's alliance with theRidwan andFarrukh governing dynasties ofGaza and Nablus, which remained intact until the dynasties' demise toward the end of the century. (Full article...)
Illustration of thePtolemaicgeocentric model of the Universe (the theory that theEarth is the center of theuniverse) byPortuguese cosmographer and cartographerBartolomeu Velho. Taken from his treatiseCosmographia, made in Paris, 1568. Notice the distances of the bodies to the centre of the Earth (left) and the times of revolution, in years (right).
A c. 1650 map showing theIsland of California, a long-held European misconception, dating from the 16th century, thatCalifornia was not part of mainlandNorth America but rather a large island separated from the continent by a strait now known instead as theGulf of California. The belief persisted until the expeditions ofJuan Bautista de Anza in 1774–76.
Aworld map entitledNova totius terrarum orbis tabula Amstelodami, created in 1689 byGerard van Schagen. This map, created in Amsterdam, measures 48.3 by 56.0 centimetres (19.0 by 22.0 in) in size and was made usingcopper engraving.
Daedongyeojido is a large scale map of Korea produced byChosun Dynasty cartographer and geologistKim Jeong-ho in 1861. Considered to mark the zenith of pre-modern Korean cartography, the map consists of 22 separate, foldable booklets, each covering approximately 47 kilometres (29 mi) (north-south) by 31.5 kilometres (19.6 mi) (east-west). Combined, they form a map of Korea that is 6.7 metres (22 ft) wide and 3.8 metres (12 ft) long. Daedongyeojido is praised for precise delineations of mountain ridges, waterways, and transportation routes, as well as its markings for settlements, administrative areas, and cultural sites.
TheAitoff projection is a modified azimuthalmap projection first proposed by David A. Aitoff in 1889. Based on the equatorial form of theazimuthal equidistant projection, Aitoff halved longitudes from the centralmeridian, projected by the azimuthal equidistant, and then stretched the result horizontally into a 2:1 ellipse.
Antarctica, thecontinent surrounding theEarth'sSouth Pole, is thecoldest place on Earth and is almost entirely covered byice. Antarctica was discovered in late January1820. Too cold and dry to support virtually any vascular plants, Antartica's flora presently consists of around 250lichens, 100mosses, 25-30liverworts, and around 700 terrestrial and aquaticalgal species.
This picture is a panoramic map of North Cascades National Park, as viewed from the east, created in 1987 by Austrian painter and cartographerHeinrich C. Berann for the National Park Service.
Ananimation showing the unfolding of aDymaxion map, aprojection of aworld map onto the surface of apolyhedron (in this case, anicosahedron) and then flattened to form a two-dimensional map which retains most of the relative proportional integrity of the globe map. This type of map was invented byBuckminster Fuller and is one of several of his inventions to use the nameDymaxion.
Map:Strebe, using the Geocart map projection software
Atwo-point equidistant projection ofEurasia. All distances of other points from the two points marked in red (45°N 40°E and 30°N 110°E) are correct. This map is a derivative ofNASA'sBlue Marble summer month composite, with oceans lightened to enhance legibility and contrast.
The mark of Pierre Rossier's photographic studio in Fribourg
Pierre Joseph Rossier (16 July 1829 – 22 October 1886) was a pioneering Swiss photographer whosealbumen photographs, which includestereographs andcartes-de-visite, comprise portraits, cityscapes, and landscapes. He was commissioned by the London firm ofNegretti and Zambra to travel to Asia and document the progress of the Anglo-French troops in theSecond Opium War and, although he failed to join that military expedition, he remained in Asia for several years, producing the firstcommercial photographs of China, the Philippines, Japan and Siam (now Thailand). He was the first professional photographer in Japan, where he trainedUeno Hikoma,Maeda Genzō,Horie Kuwajirō, as well as lesser known members of the first generation of Japanese photographers. In Switzerland he establishedphotographic studios inFribourg andEinsiedeln, and he also produced images elsewhere in the country. Rossier is an important figure in the early history of photography not only because of his own images, but also because of the critical impact of his teaching in the early days of Japanese photography. (Full article...)
Venezuela, officially theBolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast ofSouth America, consisting of a continental landmass andvarious islands and islets in theCaribbean Sea. It comprises an area of 912,050 km2 (352,140 sq mi), with a population estimated at 31.8 million in 2025.[verification needed] The capital and largest urbanagglomeration isCaracas. The continental territory is bordered on the north by the Caribbean Sea and theAtlantic Ocean, on the west byColombia,Brazil on the south,Trinidad and Tobago to the north-east, and on the east byGuyana. Venezuela consists of23 states, theCapital District, andfederal dependencies covering Venezuela's offshore islands. Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America; the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north and in the capital. (Full article...)
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Dymaxion map of the world with the 30 largest countries and territories by area
This is a list of the world's countries and theirdependencies, ranked by total area, including land and water. (Full article...)
Generation Z, often shortened toGen Z and informally known asZoomers, is the demographiccohort succeedingMillennials and precedingGeneration Alpha. Researchers and popular media use the mid-to-late 1990s as starting birth years and the early 2010s as ending birth years, with the generation typically being defined as people born from 1997 to 2012. Most members of Generation Z are the children ofGeneration X, and it is predicted that many will be the parents of the proposedGeneration Beta. (Full article...)
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