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TheMing dynasty consideredTibet to be part of theWestern Regions. While the Ming dynasty at its height had some degree of influence in Tibet, the exact nature of their relations is under dispute by modern scholars. Analysis of the relationship is further complicated by modern political conflicts and the application ofWestphalian sovereignty to a time when the concept did not exist.The Historical Status of China's Tibet, a book published by thePeople's Republic of China, asserts that the Ming dynasty had unquestionedsovereignty over Tibet by pointing to the Ming court's issuing of various titles to Tibetan leaders, Tibetans' full acceptance of the titles, and a renewal process for successors of these titles that involved traveling to the Ming capital. Scholars in China also argue that Tibet has been an integral part of China since the 13th century and so it was a part of the Ming Empire. However, most scholars outside China, such asTurrell V. Wylie,Melvyn C. Goldstein, and Helmut Hoffman, say that the relationship was one ofsuzerainty, Ming titles were only nominal, Tibet remained an independent region outside Ming control, and itsimply paid tribute until theJiajing Emperor, who ceased relations with Tibet.
Some scholars note that Tibetan leaders during the Ming frequently engaged incivil war and conducted their own foreign diplomacy with neighboring states such asNepal. Some scholars underscore the commercial aspect of the Ming–Tibetan relationship, noting the Ming dynasty's shortage ofhorses for warfare and thus the importance of the horse trade with Tibet. Others argue that the significantreligious nature of the relationship of the Ming court with Tibetanlamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship. (Full article...)
St. Michael's Cathedral is the product of a strong German presence in Shandong Province in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the mid-19th century the European powers forcibly opened China to foreign trade. TheDivine Word Missionaries built a church in theJiaozhou Bay concession in Shandong in 1902, and in 1934 erected the cathedral, which remained nominally under their administration until 1964. In 1942 it came under the control of theJapanese Army, returning to Chinese control when the Japanese left Qingdao in 1945. In the early 1950s, all foreign missionaries, including the Bishop of Qingdao, were either imprisoned or expelled from China, and during theCultural Revolution (1966–1976) the cathedral was defaced and abandoned. In 1981, it was repaired by the government and reopened for services, and in 1992 it was listed as a Provincial Historic Building by the government of Shandong Province. (Full article...)
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The Western Han dynasty in 2 AD
Principalities and centrally-administeredcommanderies
Choe Bu (Korean:최부, 1454–1504) was a Korean diarist, historian, politician, and travel writer during the earlyJoseon Dynasty. He was most well known for the account of his shipwrecked travels inChina from February to July 1488, during theMing dynasty (1368–1644). He was eventually banished from the Joseon court in 1498 and executed in 1504 duringtwo political purges. However, in 1506 he wasexonerated and given posthumous honors by the Joseon court.
Choe's diary accounts of his travels in China became widely printed during the 16th century in both Korea andJapan. Modern historians also refer to his written works, since his travel diary provides a unique outsider's perspective on Chinese culture in the 15th century. The attitudes and opinions expressed in his writing represent in part the standpoints and views of the 15th centuryConfucian Korean literati, who viewedChinese culture as compatible with and similar totheir own. His description of cities, people, customs, cuisines, and maritime commerce alongChina's Grand Canal provides insight into the daily life of China and how it differed betweennorthern and southern China during the 15th century. (Full article...)
Between theRoman Empire and theHan dynasty, as well as between the laterEastern Roman Empire and varioussuccessive Chinese dynasties, there were (primarily indirect) contacts and flows of trade goods, information, and occasional travellers. These empires inched progressively closer to each other in the course of the Roman expansion intoancient Western Asia and of the simultaneousHan military incursionsinto Central Asia. Mutual awareness remained low, and firm knowledge about each other was limited. Surviving records document only a few attempts at direct contact. Intermediate empires such as theParthians andKushans, seeking to maintain control over the lucrativesilk trade, inhibited direct contact between the two ancientEurasian powers. In 97AD, theChinese generalBan Chao tried to send his envoyGan Ying toRome, butParthians dissuaded Gan from venturing beyond thePersian Gulf. Ancient Chinese historians recorded several alleged Roman emissaries to China. The first one on record, supposedly either from the Roman emperorAntoninus Pius or from his adopted sonMarcus Aurelius, arrived in 166 AD. Others are recorded as arriving in 226 and 284AD, followed by a long hiatus until the first recordedByzantine embassy in 643AD.
The women's road race was one of thecycling events at the2008 Summer Olympics inBeijing, China. It took place on 10 August 2008, featuring 66 women from 33 countries. It was the seventh appearance of an Olympic women's road race event and featured a longer course than any of the previous six races. The race was run on theUrban Road Cycling Course (one of Beijing's nine temporaryvenues), which is 102.6 kilometres (63.8 mi) total. Including a second lap around the 23.8 km (14.8 mi) final circuit, the total distance of the women's race was 126.4 km (78.5 mi), less than half the length of the men's race.
Heavy rain during most of the race made conditions difficult for the competitors. A group of five broke away during the final lap and worked together until the final sprint, whereNicole Cooke won the race. Cooke earnedGreat Britain's first medal at these Games and 200th Olympic gold medal overall.Emma Johansson ofSweden andTatiana Guderzo ofItaly, finishing second and third place with the same time as Cooke, received silver and bronze medals respectively. (Full article...)
In hisDream Pool Essays orDream Torrent Essays (夢溪筆談;Mengxi Bitan) of 1088, Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needlecompass, which would be used for navigation (first described in Europe byAlexander Neckam in 1187). Shen discovered the concept oftrue north in terms ofmagnetic declination towards thenorth pole, with experimentation of suspended magnetic needles and "the improvedmeridian determined by Shen's [astronomical] measurement of the distance between thepole star and true north". This was the decisive step in human history to make compasses more useful for navigation, and may have been a concept unknown in Europefor another four hundred years (evidence of German sundials made circa 1450 show markings similar toChinese geomancers' compasses in regard to declination). (Full article...)
Set in thePeople's Republic of China during the 1990s, the film centers on a 13-year-old substitute teacher, Wei Minzhi, in theChinese countryside. Called in to substitute for a village teacher for one month, Wei is told not to lose any students. When one of the boys takes off in search of work in the big city, she goes looking for him. The film addresseseducation reform in China, the economic gap between urban and rural populations, and the prevalence of bureaucracy and authority figures in everyday life. It is filmed in aneorealist/documentary style with a troupe of non-professional actors who play characters with the same names and occupations as the actors have in real life, blurring the boundaries between drama and reality. (Full article...)
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Posthumous portrait
Du Fu (Chinese:杜甫;pinyin:Dù Fǔ;Wade–Giles:Tu Fu; 712–770) was a Chinese poet of theTang dynasty, known as the "Poet-Historian" and the "Poet-Sage". Together withLi Bai, Du is regarded as one of greatest poets in Chinese history. Although he aspired to serve the state as a civil official, he never achieved political success. His life, like that of the Tang dynasty, was profoundly shaped by theAn Lushan Rebellion, and his final years were marked by hardship and displacement. Nearly fifteen hundred of Du’s poems have survived, exerting a profound influence on both Chinese and Japanese literary traditions. (Full article...)
After theChinese Communist Revolution, the Party sought to memorialize their achievements through artworks. Dong was commissioned to create a visual representation of the October 1 ceremony, which he had attended. He viewed it as essential that the painting show both the people and their leaders. After working for three months, he completed an oil painting in afolk art style, drawing upon Chinese art history for the contemporary subject. The success of the painting was assured when Mao viewed it and liked it, and it was reproduced in large numbers for display in the home. (Full article...)
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With the pale yellow rump visible.Buryatia, Russia.
Pallas's leaf warbler is one of the smallestPalearcticwarblers, with a relatively large head and short tail. It has greenish upperparts and white underparts, a lemon-yellow rump, and yellow double wingbars,supercilia and centralcrown stripe. It is similar in appearance to several other Asian warblers, including some that were formerly considered to besubspecies of it, although its distinctivevocalisations aid identification. (Full article...)
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Holotype skull shown from above (A), the right side (B), and below (C)
Xixiasaurus (/ˌʃiːʃiəˈsɔːrəs/) is agenus oftroodontiddinosaur that lived during theLate CretaceousPeriod in what is nowChina. The only known specimen was discovered inXixia County,Henan Province, incentral China, and became theholotype of the new genus andspeciesXixiasaurus henanensis in2010. The names refer to the areas of discovery, and can be translated as "Henan Xixia lizard". The specimen consists of an almost complete skull (except for the hindmost portion), part of the lower jaw, and teeth, as well as a partial right forelimb.
Xixiasaurus is estimated to have been 1.5 metres (5 ft) long and to have weighed 8 kilograms (18 lb). As a troodontid, it would have been bird-like and lightly built, with grasping hands and an enlarged sickle-shaped claw on the second toe. Its skull was long, with a long, low snout that formed a tapering U-shape when seen from below. Thefrontal bone of the forehead was dome-like in side view, which indicates it had an enlargedbraincase. It differed from other troodontids in that the front of thedentary bone of the lower jaw was down-turned. Unlike in most troodontids, the teeth ofXixiasaurus did not haveserrations; instead, theircarinae (front and back edges) were smooth and sharp. It was distinct among troodontids in having 22 teeth in eachmaxilla (in other genera the maxillary tooth count was either higher or lower). (Full article...)
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Rob-B-Hood (traditional Chinese:寶貝計劃;simplified Chinese:宝贝计划, also known asRobin-B-Hood, literally: Baby Project) is a 2006Hong Kong action comedy drama film written, produced and directed byBenny Chan, feature an ensemble cast includeJackie Chan,Louis Koo,Yuen Biao,Michael Hui,Gao Yuanyuan,Charlene Choi,Chen Baoguo and Matthew Medvedev. It tells the story of a kidnapping gone wrong in Hong Kong; a trio of burglars consisting of Thongs (Chan), Octopus (Koo) and the Landlord (Hui) kidnap a baby from a wealthy family on behalf oftriads. With the Landlord arrested, Thongs and Octopus take care of the baby for a short time, developing strong bonds with him. Reluctant to hand the baby over, the two are forced to protect him from the triads who hired them in the first place.
Originally announced in 2005, the film marked Benny Chan's third collaboration with Jackie Chan, followingWho Am I? andNew Police Story. It was produced with a budget of HK$16.8 million and filming took place in Hong Kong between December 2005 and January 2006.Rob-B-Hood is the first film in over 30 years in which Jackie Chan plays as athief. (Full article...)
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TheSakyamuni Buddha, by Song painter Zhang Shengwen, c. AD 1181–1186; althoughBuddhism was in decline and under attack byNeo-Confucian critics in the Song era, it nonetheless remained one of the major religious ideologies in China.
Chinese society during theSong dynasty (AD 960–1279) was marked by political and legal reforms, a philosophical revival ofConfucianism, and the development of cities beyond administrative purposes into centers of trade, industry, andmaritime commerce. The inhabitants of rural areas were mostly farmers, although some were also hunters, fishers, or government employees working in mines or the salt marshes. Conversely, shopkeepers, artisans, city guards, entertainers, laborers, and wealthy merchants lived in the county and provincial centers along with theChinese gentry—a small, elite community of educated scholars andscholar-officials. As landholders and drafted government officials, the gentry considered themselves the leading members of society; gaining their cooperation and employment was essential for the county or provincial bureaucrat overburdened with official duties. In many ways, scholar-officials of the Song period differed from the more aristocratic scholar-officials of theTang dynasty (618–907).Civil service examinations became the primary means of appointment to an official post as competitors vying for official degrees dramatically increased. Frequent disagreements amongst ministers of state on ideological and policy issues led to political strife and the rise of political factions. This undermined the marriage strategies of the professional elite, which broke apart as a social group and gave way to a multitude of families that provided sons forcivil service.
Confucian orLegalist scholars in ancient China—perhaps as far back as the lateZhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC)—categorized all socioeconomic groups intofour broad and hierarchical occupations (in descending order): theshi (scholars, or gentry), thenong (peasant farmers), thegong (artisans and craftsmen), and theshang (merchants). Wealthy landholders and officials possessed the resources to better prepare their sons for the civil service examinations, yet they were often rivaled in their power and wealth by merchants of the Song period. Merchants frequently colluded commercially and politically with officials, despite the fact that scholar-officials looked down on mercantile vocations as less respectable pursuits than farming or craftsmanship. The military also provided a means for advancement in Song society for those who became officers, even though soldiers were not highly respected members of society. Although certain domestic and familial duties were expected of women in Song society, they nonetheless enjoyed a wide range of social and legal rights in an otherwisepatriarchal society. Women's improved rights to property came gradually with the increasing value ofdowries offered by brides' families. (Full article...)
It has a lowsugar content (19%) and lowsaturated fat content (2%). By comparison,cotton candy is fat free with a very highsugar content (94%). Dragon's beard candy has a very shortshelf life. It is highly sensitive to moisture and tends to melt in warm temperatures. (Full article...)
This is agood article, an article that meets a core set of high editorial standards.
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Course of the Wall throughout history The history of theGreat Wall of China began when fortifications built by variousstates during theSpring and Autumn (771–476BC) andWarring States periods (475–221BC) were connected by the first emperor of China,Qin Shi Huang, to protect his newly foundedQin dynasty (221–206BC) against incursions bynomads from Inner Asia. The walls were built of rammed earth, constructed using forced labour, and by 212 BC ran fromGansu to the coast of southernManchuria.
Later dynasties adopted different policies towards northern frontier defense. TheHan (202BC – 220AD), theNorthern Qi (550–574), theJurchen-ruledJin (1115–1234), and particularly theMing (1369–1644) were among those that rebuilt, re-manned, and expanded the Walls, although they rarely followed Qin's routes. The Han extended the fortifications furthest to the west, the Qi built about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) of new walls, while the Sui mobilised over a million men in their wall-building efforts. Conversely, theTang (618–907), theSong (960–1279), theYuan (1271–1368), and theQing (1644–1912) mostly did not build frontier walls, instead opting for other solutions to the Inner Asian threat like military campaigning and diplomacy. (Full article...)
Both the parents of Oei Hui-lan hailed from the establishment: her father stemmed from one of the wealthiest families inJava, while her mother came from the'Cabang Atas' aristocracy as a descendant of aLuitenant der Chinezen inSemarang's 18th-centuryDutch bureaucracy. After an unsuccessful marriage with Caulfield-Stoker, she met Wellington Koo while inParis in 1920. They married inBrussels the following year and first lived inGeneva in connection with the establishment of theLeague of Nations. In 1923, she moved with her husband toBeijing where he served as Acting Premier in the evolving republican Chinese state. During his second term (October 1926—June 1927), Wellington Koo also acted asPresident of the Republic of China for a brief period, making Oei Hui-lan the First Lady of China. The couple then spent time inShanghai,Paris andLondon where Oei Hui-lan became a celebrated hostess. In 1941, she moved toNew York where she died in 1992. (Full article...)
Titular inscription at the entrance to the "Yeren Cave" inShennongjia
Theyeren (Chinese:野人;pinyin:yěrén;lit. 'wild man') is acryptid apeman reported to inhabit remote, mountainous regions of China, most famously in theShennongjia Forestry District in theHubei Province. Sightings of "hairy men" have remained constant since theWarring States Period circa 340 BCE through theTang dynasty (618–907 CE), before solidifying into the modern legend of the yeren. Generally, they are described as savage, strong, and fast-moving, living in mountain caves and descending only to raid villages in search of food or women.
Scientific interest in such apemen erupted in the 1950s and 1960s in conjunction withpseudoscientific discoveries relating toBigfoot and theyeti, but pressure by theMaoist government to leave behind these kinds of legends and folk stories repressed further interest in the yeren until its dissolution in 1976. Afterwards, large expeditions were launched by theChinese Academy of Sciences to investigate alleged eyewitness accounts, footprints, hairs, and bodies as "yeren fever" took hold, with scientists working with an unprecedented reliance oncitizen science. The yeren was often speculated to be a far removed human relative, such asGigantopithecus orParanthropus robustus. All forwarded evidence of the creature originated from known animals — namelybears,monkeys, andgibbons — and scientific interest waned by the late 1980s. Nonetheless, organized yeren research still persists, though no serious scientific institutions recognize such apemen. (Full article...)
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A page with the formula for gunpowder from theWujing Zongyao manuscript TheWujing Zongyao (Chinese:武經總要), sometimes rendered in English as theComplete Essentials for the Military Classics, is a Chinese militarycompendium written from around 1040 to 1044.
The book was compiled during theNorthern Song dynasty byZeng Gongliang (曾公亮), Ding Du (丁度) and Yang Weide (楊惟德), whose writing influenced many later Chinese military writers. The compendium was published under the auspices ofEmperor Renzong of Song, who also authored the book's preface. The book covers a wide range of subjects, including everything from navalwarships to different types ofcatapults. It contains the earliest known written chemical formulas forgunpowder, made fromsaltpeter,sulphur andcharcoal along with many added ingredients. In addition to formulas for gunpowder, the compendium also contains details on various other gunpowder weapons such asfire arrows,incendiary bombs and projectiles, andgrenades andsmoke bombs. It also describes an early form of thecompass (usingthermoremanence), and has the oldest illustration of a Chineseflamethrower with a double-action dual-piston cylinder-pump capable of shooting a continuous blast of flame. (Full article...)
Great Britain's Olympic medal performance in 2008 was its best in a century; at the close of the Games, the overall medal count of 47 was the second highest ever achieved by Team GB. The total number of gold medals was the highest since the1908 Summer Olympics, which Britain hosted in London. Following the retesting of samples in 2016 in connection with theRussian doping scandal, disqualifications led to four further bronze medals being awarded to Great Britain in athletics: both the men's and women's4 × 400 metres relay teams were officially upgraded to bronze;Kelly Sotherton received her second reallocated bronze medal, in the women's heptathlon event (having also been part of the women's relay team); andGoldie Sayers was awarded the bronze medal for the women's javelin throw event. These four additional medals retrospectively increased Team GB's total medal count to 51. (Full article...)
Su Song was the engineer for ahydro-mechanicalastronomicalclock tower located inKaifeng. It employed an earlyescapement mechanism. The escapement mechanism of Su's clock tower was invented by the Tang dynastyBuddhistmonkYi Xing and government official Liang Lingzan in 725 AD to operate a water-poweredarmillary sphere, however Su's armillary sphere was the first to utilize a mechanical clock drive. Su's clock tower also featured the oldest known endless power-transmittingchain drive, called thetian ti (天梯), or "celestial ladder", as depicted in his horological treatise. The clock tower had 133 differentclock jacks to indicate andsound the hours. The clock was dismantled by theinvadingJurchen army in 1127 AD, and although attempts were made to reassemble it, the tower was never successfully reinstated. (Full article...)
The book received both acclaim and criticism by the public and by academics. It has been praised as a work that "shows more clearly than any previous account" the extent and brutality of the episode, while elements of Chang's analysis of the motivations for the events, Japanese culture, and her calculation of the total numbers killed and raped were criticized as inaccurate because of her lack of training as a historian. Chang's research on the book was credited with the finding of the diaries ofJohn Rabe andMinnie Vautrin, both of whom played important roles in theNanking Safety Zone, a designated area in Nanjing that protected Chinese civilians during the Nanjing Massacre. (Full article...)
Dingyuan served as the flagship of AdmiralDing Ruchang during her active career. In the 1880s and early 1890s, the Beiyang Fleet conducted a routine of training exercises and cruises abroad, with emphasis placed on visits to Japan to intimidate the country. The latter resulted in theNagasaki Incident in 1886 and contributed to a rise in hostility between the two countries that culminated in theFirst Sino-Japanese War in 1894. She led the Chinese fleet during theBattle of the Yalu River on 17 September, where theJapaneseCombined Fleet sank much of the Beiyang Fleet, though bothDingyuan andZhenyuan survived despite numerous hits, thanks to their heavy armor. The survivors then retreated toPort Arthur for repairs, but after that city was threatened by theJapanese Army, fled toWeihaiwei. (Full article...)
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Fernão Pires de Andrade (also spelled asFernão Peres de Andrade; in contemporary sources,Fernam (Fernã) Perez Dandrade) (d. 1552) was a Portuguese merchant, pharmacist, and diplomat who worked under the explorer and colonial administratorAfonso de Albuquerque. His encounter withMing China in 1517—after initial contacts byJorge Álvares andRafael Perestrello in 1513 and 1516, respectively—marked the resumption of direct European commercial and diplomatic contact with China. (Even though there wereEuropeans in Medieval China, notablyMarco Polo, that period of contact had been interrupted by the fall of theYuan dynasty.)
Although de Andrade's mission was initially a success that allowed a Portuguese embassy to proceed all the way toBeijing, relations were soon spoiled by culminating events that led to an extremely negative impression of the Portuguese in China. This included acts of his brother Simão that enraged the Chinese, false reports of the Portuguese being cannibals ofkidnapped Chinese children and true reports of their conquest ofMalacca, aloyal Ming tributary state. Normalized trade and relations between Portugal and the Ming dynasty would not resume until the late 1540s and the 1557 establishment of Portuguese rule overMacau. (Full article...)
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TheShaoguan incident (Chinese:韶关事件) was a civil disturbance which took place overnight on 25–26 June 2009 inGuangdong, China. A violent dispute erupted between migrantUyghurs andHan Chinese workers at a toy factory inShaoguan as a result of false allegations of thesexual assault of a Han Chinese woman. Groups of Han Chinese set upon Uyghur co-workers, leading to at least two Uyghurs being violently killed by angry Han Chinese men (although other reports indicate a higher death toll), and some 118 people injured, most of them Uyghurs.
The event was widely cited as the cause of theJuly 2009 Ürümqi riots, which some believe began as a peaceful street protest demanding official action over the two Uyghurs who were killed in Shaoguan. Following trials in October 2009, one person was executed and several others sentenced to terms between life imprisonment and five to seven years. (Full article...)
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Kuan in 2009
Yu-chien Kuan orGuan Yuqian (Chinese:关愚谦; 18 February 1931 – 22 November 2018) was a Chinese-born Germansinologist, writer and translator. The son of a high-rankingChinese Communist Party official, he was denounced as a "rightist" and persecuted during theAnti-Rightist Campaign and theCultural Revolution. This drove him to escape from China using a Japanese passport stolen from his workplace. He landed in Egypt and spent a year and half in prison for illegal entry, before being admitted toWest Germany in 1969 as a political refugee.
In Germany, he earned a Ph.D. from theUniversity of Hamburg, became a sinology professor at the university and served as an advisor to politicians including ChancellorHelmut Schmidt. He published 26 books, including ten co-authored with his wife, Petra Häring-Kuan. He also collaborated withWolfgang Kubin to translate the works ofLu Xun into German. (Full article...)
Hon Chio Leong of Smart Life Racing Team won the Grand Prix frompole position after winning the qualification race the day before. Leong was the first Macau driver to win the Macau Grand Prix sinceAndré Couto in the2000 race, and the third overall.Wing Chung Chang of theChengdu Tianfu International Circuit Team finished second, and the podium was completed by the highest-placed Chinese driver, Li Sicheng of the LEO Geeke Team, who finished third. The race results earned He Zijian the Drivers' Championship and the LEO Geeke Team the Teams' Cup. (Full article...)
Image 28Relief of afenghuang in Fuxi Temple (Tianshui). They are mythological birds of East Asia that reign over all other birds. (fromChinese culture)
Image 48Gilin with the head and scaly body of a dragon, tail of a lion and cloven hoofs like a deer. Its body enveloped in sacred flames. Detail from Entrance of General Zu Dashou Tomb (Ming Tomb). (fromChinese culture)
Image 64Jichang Garden inWuxi (1506–1521), built during the Ming dynasty, is an exemplary work of South Chinese style garden. (fromChinese culture)
Image 65Photo showing serving chopsticks (gongkuai) on the far right, personal chopsticks (putongkuai) in the middle, and a spoon. Serving chopsticks are usually more ornate than the personal ones. (fromChinese culture)
Image 66Small Taoist shrine in Northern China (fromChinese culture)
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ThePresident of the Republic of China is the head of state of theRepublic of China (ROC).
TheConstitution names the president as head of state and commander-in-chief of theRepublic of China Armed Forces (formerly known as theNational Revolutionary Army). The president is responsible for conducting foreign relations, such as concluding treaties, declaring war, and making peace. The president must promulgate all laws and has no right to veto. Other powers of the president include granting amnesty, pardon or clemency, declaring martial law, and conferring honors and decorations.
The current President isLai Ching-te(pictured), since May 20, 2024. Lai is a Taiwanese politician and former physician, who is currently serving as the eighth president of the Republic of China under the1947 Constitution and the third president from theDemocratic Progressive Party (DPP).
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