 A 1854 Japanese print depicting the Perry Expedition | |
| Date | July 14, 1853; 172 years ago (1853-07-14) |
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| Location | Uraga, Kanagawa |
| Cause | Diplomacy, trade |
| Organised by | President Millard Fillmore |
| Participants | Commodore Perry Toda "Izu-no-kami" Ujiyoshi "Iwami-no-kami" Hiromichi |
| Outcome | End of isolationist policy of Japan |
| Footage | history |
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12th Vice President of the United States 13th President of the United States Electoral history   | ||
ThePerry Expedition (Japanese:黒船来航,kurofune raikō, "Arrival of theBlack Ships") was a diplomatic and military expedition in two separate voyages (1852–1853 and 1854–1855) to theTokugawa shogunate (徳川幕府) by warships of theUnited States Navy. The goals of this expedition included exploration, surveying, and the establishment ofdiplomatic relations and negotiation of trade agreements with the various nations in the region. Opening contact with the government ofJapan was considered a top priority of the expedition, and was one of the key reasons for its inception.
The expedition was commanded byCommodoreMatthew Calbraith Perry, under orders fromPresidentMillard Fillmore. Perry's primary goal was to force an end to Japan's 220-year-oldpolicy of isolation and to open Japanese ports to American trade, through the use ofgunboat diplomacy if necessary. The Perry Expedition led directly to the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and thewesternGreat Powers, and eventually to the collapse of the rulingTokugawa shogunate and therestoration of the Emperor. Following the expedition, Japan's burgeoning trade routes with the world led to the cultural trend ofJaponisme, in which aspects ofJapanese culture influenced art inEurope andAmerica.
Growing commerce between America andChina, the presence of Americanwhalers in waters off Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potentialcoaling stations by European colonial powers inAsia were all contributing factors in the decision by President Fillmore to dispatch an expedition to Japan. Shipwrecked Westerners were treated harshly or even executed in Japan, under the policy ofSakoku, including sailors from the American whaling ship the Lawrence in 1846. The Americans were also driven by concepts ofmanifest destiny and the desire to impose the benefits ofWestern civilization and theChristian religion on what they perceived as backward Asian nations.[1]
By the early 19th century, the Japanese policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, DutchKing William II sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside.[2] Between 1790 and 1853, at least twenty-seven U.S. ships, including three warships, visited Japan, only to be turned away.
There were increased sightings and incursions of foreign ships into Japanese waters, and this led to considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty. In May 1851, American Secretary of StateDaniel Webster authorized CommodoreJohn H. Aulick, commander of theAmerican East India Squadron, to attempt to return seventeenshipwrecked Japanese sailors residing inSan Francisco, which might provide the opportunity for opening commercial relations with Japan. On May 10, 1851, Webster drafted a letter addressed to the "Japanese Emperor" with assurances that the expedition had no religious purpose but was only to request "friendship and commerce" and supplies of coal needed by American ships en route to China.[3]
The letter also boasted ofAmerican expansion across the North American continent and its technical prowess, and was signed by President Fillmore. However, Aulick became involved in a diplomatic row with a Brazilian diplomat and quarrels with the captain of his flagship, and was relieved of his command before he could undertake the Japan expedition.[4] His replacement, CommodoreMatthew Calbraith Perry, was a senior-ranking officer in the United States Navy, and had extensive diplomatic experience.
Perry was well aware of the difficulties involved in attempting to establish relations with Japan and initially protested that he would prefer to command theMediterranean Squadron of the U.S. Navy instead of being assigned to yet another attempt to open Japan, which he considered unlikely to win. Relevant precedents included:
In advance of his voyage, Perry read widely amongst available books about Japan. His research also included consultation with theJapanologistPhilipp Franz von Siebold. Siebold spent eight years working, teaching, and studying at the isolated Dutch island-trading post ofDejima in Nagasaki harbour before returning toLeiden in the Netherlands.[7] Perry also demanded greater latitude in his orders from Webster, a demand the Secretary of State granted just before his death in October 1852. Perry thus sailed for Japan with "full and discretionary powers", including possible use of force if the Japanese tried to treat him as they had the unfortunate Commodore Biddle.[8] Perry also refused to allow any professional diplomats to accompany the expedition. He asked theGerman painterWilhelm Heine and pioneerdaguerreotype photographer Eliphalet M. Brown Jr. to join the expedition as official artists. Agricultural specialist Dr. James Morrow was assigned by the US State Department. Several Japanese castaways were also taken on as unofficial interpreters.
The expedition was assigned the steam warshipsMississippi,Susquehanna, andPowhatan, the armed store steamshipsLexington,Supply, andSouthampton, and the sailing sloopsMacedonian,Plymouth, andSaratoga. To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in theMexican–American War. CommanderFranklin Buchanan was captain ofSusquehanna andJoel Abbot was captain ofMacedonian. Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore's chief of staff with the title "Captain of the Fleet". MajorJacob Zeilin (future commandant of theUnited States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer, and was stationed onMississippi. Perry also received permission to take government stores as gifts for the natives, especially obsolete small arms. These included 40M1819 Hall rifles (with 4,000 cartridges), 20 percussion pistols (with 2,000 cartridges), 20 artillery swords, 20 muskets with Maynard percussion locks and 40 light cavalry sabers, as well as 100Colt revolvers.
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Perry chose the black-hulled paddle-wheeledMississippi as hisflagship, and clearedHampton Roads,Virginia on November 24, 1852.[9] Perry made port calls atMadeira (December 11–15),St Helena (January 10–11),Cape Town (January 24 – February 3),Mauritius (February 18–28),Ceylon (March 10–15),Singapore (March 25–29), andMacao andHong Kong (April 7–28). There he met with American-born SinologistSamuel Wells Williams (who had been to Japan with theMorrison in 1837), who providedChinese-language translations of Perry's official letters, and rendezvoused withPlymouth andSaratoga. He continued toShanghai (May 4–17), where he met with the Dutch-born American diplomat Anton L. C. Portman, who translated his official letters into theDutch language, and rendezvoused withSusquehanna.
Perry then switched his flag toSusquehanna and called on theRyukyu Islands from May 17–26. Ignoring the claims ofSatsuma Domain to the islands, as well as his own orders, he threatened and bluffed local authorities by threatening to attack with 200 troops unless he were allowed trading rights and land for a coaling station. Perry landed his Marines, whom he drilled on the beach for hours at a time, and demanded an audience with the Ryukyu KingShō Tai atShuri Castle. Knowing that his every action would be reported to Japanese authorities inEdo, Perry carefully avoided meeting with low-ranked officials and made much use of military ceremony and shipboard hospitality to demonstrate both American military power and the peaceful intent of his expedition.[10] Perry left with promises that the islands would be completely open to trade with the United States. Continuing on theOgasawara Islands in mid-June, Perry met with the local inhabitants and even purchased a plot of land.
Perry finally reachedUraga at the entrance toEdo Bay in Japan on July 8, 1853. His fleet at this time consisted of four vessels:Susquehanna,Mississippi,Plymouth andSaratoga. As he arrived, Perry ordered his ships to steam past Japanese lines towards the capital ofEdo, and position their guns towards the town of Uraga.[11] He also fired blank shots from his 73 cannons, which he claimed was in celebration of the American Independence Day. Perry's ships were equipped with newPaixhans shell guns, cannons capable of wreaking great explosive destruction with every shell.[12][13]
The American ships were almost surrounded by Japanese guard boats; however, Perry ordered that any attempt at boarding was to be repelled. One boat carried a large sign in French ordering the American fleet to depart immediately. On 9 July, 1853, ayoriki from theUraga bugyō, Nakajima Saburosuke, accompanied by interpreterHori Tatsunosuke, rowed out toSusquehanna, but were at first refused permission to come on board. After some negotiation, they were permitted to board, where they displayed the order that no foreign ships were allowed into Japanese ports. Perry remained in his cabin and refused to meet them, sending word through his officers that as he carried a letter from the President of the United States, he would only deal with officials of sufficient stature and authority.[2]
On 10 July, 1853,yoriki Kayama Eizaemon, pretending to be theUraga bugyō, called onSusquehanna and was allowed to meet Captain Franklin, whom he advised to travel toNagasaki, as this was the designated port for all foreign contact. Kayama was told that unless a suitable official came to receive the document, Perry would land troops and march on Edo, to deliver the letter in person. Kayama asked for three days in order to respond. The actualUraga bugyō,Ido Hiromichi, sent a report to theshōgun and advised that his defenses were totally inadequate to repel the Americans by force.[2]
In the meantime, Perry began a campaign of intimidation, by sending boats to survey the surrounding area, and threatened to use force if the Japanese guard boats around the American squadron did not disperse.[11] He also presented the Japanese with awhite flag and a letter which told them that in case they chose combat, the Americans would necessarily vanquish them.[14][15]
The Japanese government was paralyzed due to the incapacitation by illness ofShōgunTokugawa Ieyoshi and by political indecision on how to handle the unprecedented threat to the nation's capital. On July 11, 1853, seniorrōjūAbe Masahiro temporized, deciding that simply accepting a letter from the Americans would not constitute a violation of Japanese sovereignty. The decision was conveyed to Uraga, and Perry was asked to move his fleet slightly southwest to the beach atKurihama (in modern-dayYokosuka), where he was allowed to land on 14 July.[16]Perry went ashore with considerable pomp, landing with 250 sailors and Marines in 15 ships' boats after a 13-gun salute fromSusquehanna. Major Zeilin's Marines presented arms, and a band played "Hail Columbia". President Fillmore's letter was formally received byhatamotoToda "Izu-no-kami" Ujiyoshi and by Ido "Iwami-no-kami" Hiromichi. Perry's squadron eventually departed on 17 July for the Chinese coast, promising to return for a reply.[17]
After Perry's departure, an extensive debate ensued within the shogunal court on how to respond to the American's implied threats.ShōgunTokugawa Ieyoshi died days after Perry's departure, and was succeeded by his sickly young son,Tokugawa Iesada, leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders (rōjū) led by Abe Masahiro. Abe felt that it was currently impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force, and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation. Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of thedaimyōs for their opinions. This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision-making to be a matter of public debate, and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the shogunate as weak and indecisive.[18]
The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer, as of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favor of accepting the American demands, and 19 were equally opposed. Of the remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and two advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided.[19] The only universal recommendation was that steps be taken immediately to bolster Japan's coastal defenses. Fortifications were hurriedly built close to current dayOdaiba in order to protect Edo from a subsequent American naval incursion.
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Although he had told the Japanese that he would return the following year, Perry soon learned that RussianVice-AdmiralYevfimiy Putyatin had called in at Nagasaki shortly after he departed from Edo Bay, and had spent a month attempting to force the Japanese to sign a treaty before his return. He also was told by both the British and French that they intended to accompany him to Japan in the spring to ensure that the Americans did not obtain any exclusive privileges. Perry thus returned on 13 February 1854 with eight vessels and 1600 men. The fleet had lostPlymouth of the original four, and now also included:Lexington,Macedonian,Powhatan,Vandalia, andSouthampton.Supply arrived loaded with coal and stores on 19 March, bringing the total strength to nine.[20]
By the time of Perry's return, the Tokugawa shogunate had decided to accept virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. However, negotiators procrastinated for weeks over the site for negotiations, with Perry insisting on Edo, and the Japanese offering various other locations. Perry eventually lost his temper and threatened to bring 100 ships (more than the actual size of the US Navy at the time) within 20 days to war on Japan. Both sides eventually compromised on the tiny village ofYokohama, where a purpose-built hall was erected. Perry landed on 8 March with 500 sailors and Marines in 27 ships' boats, with three bands playing "The Star-Spangled Banner".[21]
Three weeks of negotiation ensued, accompanied by diplomatic gestures such as the exchange of state gifts. The Americans presented the Japanese with a miniaturesteam locomotive, a telegraph apparatus, various agricultural tools, and small arms, as well as one hundred gallons of whiskey, clocks, stoves, and books about the United States. The Japanese responded with gold-lacquered furniture and boxes, bronze ornaments, silk and brocade garments, porcelain goblets, and upon learning of Perry's personal hobby, a collection of seashells. Cultural displays were also performed on both sides, with the American sailors aboard thePowhatan putting on aminstrel show, while a number of high-rankingsumo wrestlers performed feats of strength and held exhibition matches.[21]
Finally, on March 31, 1854, Perry signed theConvention of Kanagawa which opened the ports ofShimoda andHakodate to American ships, provided for care of shipwrecked sailors, and the establishment of an American consulate in Shimoda.[22] The treaty was signed on the Japanese side byHayashi Akira. Perry then dispatched theSaratoga home with the signed treaty, while the rest of the squadron went to survey Hakodate, Shimoda and the site of the future consulate. After departing from Shimoda, the fleet returned to the Ryukyu Islands, where Perry swiftly drafted the "Compact between the United States and the Ryukyu Kingdom," which was formally signed on July 11, 1854.
After Perry returned to the United States in 1855,Congress voted to grant him a reward of $20,000 (~$737,000 in 2022) in appreciation of his work in Japan. Perry used part of this money to prepare and publish a report of the expedition in three volumes, titledNarrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan. This was written byFrancis L. Hawks under Perry's supervision, using the written materials compiled by Perry and his colleagues during the expedition.[23] It was first presented as a report to theUnited States Senate in 1856 and later published commercially. Perry was also promoted to the rank ofrear-admiral on the retired list (when his health began to fail) as a reward for his services.[24] He was known to have suffered severearthritis that left him in frequent pain and on occasion prevented him from fulfilling his duties.[25]
Perry spent his last years preparing for publication of his account of the Japan expedition, announcing its completion on 28 December 1857. Two days later he was detached from his last post, an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board. He died awaiting further orders on 4 March 1858 inNew York City, ofrheumatism that had spread to the heart, compounded by complications ofgout.[26]
Media related toPerry Expedition at Wikimedia Commons
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