Noh (能,Nō;Japanese pronunciation:[no(ꜜ)ː],[1][2][a]Sino-Japanese for "ability"[b]) is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. It is Japan's oldest major theater art that is still regularly performed today.[3] Noh is often based on tales from traditional literature featuring a supernatural being transformed into a human hero who narrates the story. Noh integrates masks, costumes and various props in a dance-based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized conventional gestures while the iconic masks represent specific roles such as ghosts, women, deities, and demons. Having a strong emphasis on tradition rather than innovation, Noh is highly codified and regulated by theiemoto system.
Although the terms Noh andnōgaku are sometimes used interchangeably,nōgaku encompasses both Noh andkyōgen. Traditionally, a fullnōgaku program included several Noh plays with comedickyōgen plays in between; an abbreviated program of two Noh plays with onekyōgen piece has become common today.
Thekanji forNoh (能) means "skill", "craft", or "talent", particularly in the field of performing arts in this context. The word Noh may be used alone or withgaku (楽; entertainment, music) to form the wordnōgaku. Noh is a classical tradition that is highly valued by many today. When used alone, Noh refers to the historical genre of theatre that originated fromsarugaku in the mid 14th century and continues to be performed today.[4]
One of the oldest forerunners of Noh andkyōgen issangaku [ja], which was introduced to Japan from China in the 8th century. At the time, the termsangaku referred to various types of performance featuring acrobats, song and dance as well as comic sketches. Its subsequent adaptation to Japanese society led to its assimilation of other traditional art forms."[5] Various performing art elements insangaku as well as elements ofdengaku (rural celebrations performed in connection with rice planting),sarugaku (popular entertainment including acrobatics, juggling, and pantomime),shirabyōshi(traditional dances performed by female dancers in the Imperial Court in the 12th century),gagaku (music and dance performed in the Imperial Court beginning in the 7th century), andkagura (ancientShinto dances in folk tales) evolved into Noh andkyōgen.[3]
Studies on thegenealogy of the Noh actors in 14th century indicate they were members of families specializing in the performing arts. According to legend, the Konparu School, which is considered to be the oldest tradition of Noh, was founded byHata no Kawakatsu in the 6th century. However, the founder of the Konparu school, which is widely accepted among historians, was Bishaō Gon no Kami (Komparu Gonnokami) duringNanboku-chō period in the 14th century. According to the genealogical chart of the Konparu school, Bishaō Gon no Kami is a descendant after 53 generations of Hata no Kawakatsu. The Konparu school was descended from thesarugaku troupe which had played active roles inKasuga-taisha andKofuku-ji inYamato Province.[6][7][8]
Another theory, by Shinhachirō Matsumoto, suggests Noh originated from outcastes struggling to claim higher social status by catering to those in power, namely the new rulingsamurai class of the time. The transfer of theshogunate fromKamakura toKyoto at the beginning ofMuromachi period marked the increasing power of the samurai class and strengthened the relationship between the shogunate and the court. As Noh became theshōgun's favorite art form, Noh was able to become a courtly art form through this newly formed relationship. In 14th century, with strong support and patronage fromshōgunAshikaga Yoshimitsu, Zeami was able to establish Noh as the most prominent theatre art form of the time.[4]
In the 14th century, during theMuromachi period (1336 to 1573),Kan'ami Kiyotsugu and his sonZeami Motokiyo reinterpreted various traditional performing arts and completed Noh in a significantly different form from the traditional one, essentially bringing Noh to the present form.[9] Kan'ami was a renowned actor with great versatility playing roles from graceful women and 12-year-old boys to strong men. When Kan'ami first presented his work to the 17-year-oldAshikaga Yoshimitsu, Zeami was a child actor in his play, around age 12. Yoshimitsu fell in love with Zeami and his position of favor at court caused Noh to be performed frequently for Yoshimitsu thereafter.[4]
Konparu Zenchiku, who was the great-grandson of Bishaō Gon no Kami, the founder of the Konparu school, and the husband of Zeami's daughter, incorporated elements ofwaka (poetry) into Zeami's Noh and further developed it.[10][8]
By this period, among the five major schools of Noh, four were established: theKanze school, established by Kan'ami and Zeami; theHōshō school established by Kan'ami's eldest brother; the Konparu school; and the Kongō school. All of these schools were descendants of thesarugaku troupe from Yamato Province. TheAshikaga Shogunate supported only the Kanze school among the four schools.[7][11]
During theEdo period, Noh continued to be an aristocratic art form supported by theshōgun, the feudal lords (daimyōs), as well as wealthy and sophisticated commoners. Whilekabuki andjoruri popular to the middle class focused on new and experimental entertainment, Noh strived to preserve its established high standards and historic authenticity and remained mostly unchanged throughout the era. To capture the essence of performances given by great masters, every detail in movements and positions was reproduced by others, generally resulting in an increasingly slow, ceremonial tempo over time.[4]
In this era, theTokugawa shogunate appointed Kanze school as the head of the four schools. Kita Shichidayū (Shichidayū Chōnō), a Noh actor of the Konparu school who servedTokugawa Hidetada, founded the Kita school, which was the last established of the five major schools.[7][11]
The fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 and the formation of a new, modernized government resulted in the end of financial support by the state, and the entire field of Noh experienced major financial crisis. Shortly after theMeiji Restoration both the number of Noh performers and Noh stages greatly diminished. The support from the imperial government was eventually regained partly due to Noh's appeal to foreign diplomats. The companies that remained active throughout theMeiji era also significantly broadened Noh's reach by catering to the general public, performing at theatres in major cities such as Tokyo andOsaka.[12]
Although the termsnōgaku and Noh are sometimes used interchangeably, the Japanese government's definition of "nōgaku" theatre encompasses both Noh plays andkyōgen plays.[13]Kyōgen is performed in between Noh plays in the same space. Compared to Noh, "kyōgen relies less on the use of masks and is derived from the humorous plays of thesangaku, as reflected in its comic dialogue."[5]
During theEdo period, the guild system gradually tightened, which largely excluded women from Noh, except for some women (such ascourtesans) performing songs in marginal situations.[14] Later, in theMeiji era, Noh performers taught wealthy people and nobles, and this led to more opportunities for female performers because women insisted on female teachers.[14] In the early 1900s, after women were allowed to joinTokyo Music School, the rules forbidding women from joining various schools and associations in Noh were relaxed.[14] In 1948, the first women joined the Nohgaku Performers' Association.[14][15] In 2004, the first women joined the Association for Japanese Noh Plays.[15] In 2007, theNational Noh Theatre began to annually present regular programs by female performers.[15] In 2009, there were about 1200 male and 200 female professional Noh performers.[16]
The concept ofjo-ha-kyū dictates virtually every element of Noh including compiling of a program of plays, structuring of each play, songs and dances within plays, and the basic rhythms within each Noh performance.Jo means beginning,ha means breaking, andkyū means rapid or urgent. The term originated ingagaku, ancient courtly music, to indicate gradually increasing tempo and was adopted in various Japanese traditions including Noh, tea ceremony, poetry, and flower arrangement.[17]
Jo-ha-kyū is incorporated in the traditional five-play program of Noh. The first play isjo, the second, third, and fourth plays areha, and the fifth play iskyū. In fact, the five categories discussedbelow were created so that the program would representjo-ha-kyū when one play from each category is selected and performed in order. Each play can be broken into three parts, the introduction, the development, and the conclusion. A play starts out in a slow tempo atjo, gets slightly faster atha, then culminates inkyū.[18]
There are four major categories of Noh performers:shite,waki,kyōgen, andhayashi.[7][19][20]
Shite (仕手, シテ).Shite is the main protagonist, or the leading role in plays. In plays where theshite appears first as a human and then as a ghost, the first role is known as themae-shite and the later as thenochi-shite.
Shitetsure (仕手連れ, シテヅレ). Theshite's companion. Sometimesshitetsure is abbreviated totsure (連れ, ツレ), although this term refers to both theshitetsure and thewakitsure.
Kōken (後見) are stage hands, usually one to three people.
Jiutai (地謡) is the chorus, usually comprising six to eight people.
Waki (脇, ワキ) performs the role that is the counterpart or foil of theshite.
Wakitsure (脇連れ, ワキヅレ) orWaki-tsure is the companion of thewaki.
Kyōgen (狂言) perform theaikyōgen (間狂言), which are interludes during plays.Kyōgen actors also perform in separate plays between individual Noh plays.
Hayashi (囃子) orhayashi-kata (囃子方) are the instrumentalists who play the four instruments used in Noh theatre: the transverseflute (笛,fue), hip drum (大鼓,ōtsuzumi) orōkawa (大皮), the shoulder-drum (小鼓,kotsuzumi), and the stick-drum (太鼓,taiko). The flute used for Noh is specifically callednōkan or nohkan (能管).
A typical Noh play always involves the chorus, the orchestra, and at least oneshite and onewaki actor.[21]
Actors begin their training as young children, traditionally at the age of three.
Zeami identified nine levels or types of Noh acting. Lower levels emphasize movement. Higher levels are metaphorically compared with the opening of a flower and involve spiritual prowess.[22]
There are five extant schools trainingshite actors:Kanze (観世),Hōshō (宝生),Komparu (金春),Kongō (金剛), andKita (喜多). Each school has its owniemoto family that carries the name of the school and is considered the most important. Theiemoto holds the power to create new plays or modify lyrics and performance modes.[23]
Waki actors are trained in the schools Takayasu (高安), Fukuou (福王), and Hōshō (宝生).
Two schools trainkyōgen actors: Ōkura (大蔵) and Izumi (和泉).
Eleven schools train instrumentalists, each school specializing in one to three instruments.[24]
The Nohgaku Performers' Association (Nōgaku Kyōkai), with which all professionals are registered, strictly protects the traditions passed down from performers' ancestors (seeiemoto). However, several secret documents of the Kanze school written by Zeami, as well as materials byKonparu Zenchiku, have been diffused throughout the community of scholars of Japanese theatre.[24]
Noh performance combines a variety of elements into a stylistic whole, with each particular element the product of generations of refinement according to the central Buddhist,Shinto, and minimalist aspects of Noh's aesthetic principles.
Nō masks. Right: Drunken spirit (shōjō). Made of red and black lacquered wood, with red silk tying cord, by Himi Munetada (氷見宗忠). Edo period, 19th century. Left: Nakizo, representing a female deity or woman of high rank, associated with Nō plays such as Hagoromo and Ohara Miyuki. Made of lacquered and painted wood by Norinari (憲成), designed by Zoami (増阿弥). 18th–19th century.Three pictures of the same female mask showing how the expression changes with a tilting of the head. This mask expresses different moods. In these pictures, the mask was affixed to a wall with constant lighting, and only the camera moved.
Nohmasks (能面nō-men or 面omote) are carved from blocks of Japanese cypress (檜 "hinoki"), and painted with natural pigments on a neutral base of glue and crushed seashell. There are approximately 450 different masks mostly based on sixty types,[25]: 14 all of which have distinctive names. Some masks are representative and frequently used in many different plays, while some are very specific and may only be used in one or two plays. Noh masks signify the characters' gender, age, and social ranking, and by wearing masks the actors may portray youngsters, old men, female, or nonhuman (divine ordemonic) characters.[25]: 13 Only theshite, the main actor, wears a mask in most plays, although thetsure may also wear a mask in some plays.[25]: 13, 260
Even though the mask covers an actor's facial expressions, the use of the mask in Noh is not an abandonment of facial expressions altogether. Rather, its intent is to stylize and codify the facial expressions through the use of the mask and to stimulate the imagination of the audience. By using masks, actors are able to convey emotions in a more controlled manner through movements and body language. Some masks use lighting effect to convey different emotions through slight tilting of the head. Facing slightly upward, or "brightening" the mask, will let the mask to capture more light, revealing more features that appear laughing or smiling. Facing downward, or "clouding" it, will cause the mask to appear sad or mad.[18]
Noh masks are treasured by Noh families and institutions, and the powerful Noh schools hold the oldest and most valuable Noh masks in their private collections, rarely seen by the public. The most ancient mask is supposedly kept as a hidden treasure by the oldest school, the Konparu. According to the current head of the Konparu school, the mask was carved by the legendary regentPrince Shōtoku (572–622) over a thousand years ago. While the historical accuracy of the legend of Prince Shōtoku's mask may be contested, the legend itself is ancient as it is first recorded in Zeami'sStyle and the Flower written in the 14th century.[25]: 11 Some of themasks of the Konparu school belong to theTokyo National Museum, and are exhibited there frequently.[26]
A modern Noh theatre with indoor roofed structure1: hashigakari. 2: kyōgen spot. 3: stage attendants. 4: stick drum. 5: hip drum. 6: shoulder drum. 7: flute. 8: chorus. 9:waki seat. 10:waki spot. 11:shite spot. 12:shite-bashira. 13:metsuke-bashira. 14:waki-bashira. 15:fue-bashira
The traditional Nohstage (butai) has complete openness that provides a shared experience between the performers and the audience throughout the performance. Without any proscenium or curtains to obstruct the view, the audience sees each actor even during the moments before they enter (and after they exit) the central "stage" (honbutai, "main stage"). The theatre itself is considered symbolic and treated with reverence both by the performers and the audience.[18]
One of the most recognizable characteristics of the Noh stage is its independent roof that hangs over the stage even in indoor theatres. Supported by four columns, the roof symbolizes the sanctity of the stage, with its architectural design derived from the worshippavilion (haiden) or sacred dance pavilion (kagura-den) ofShinto shrines. The roof also unifies the theatre space and defines the stage as an architectural entity.[18]
The pillars supporting the roof are namedshitebashira (principal character's pillar),metsukebashira (gazing pillar),wakibashira (secondary character's pillar), andfuebashira (flute pillar), clockwise from upstage right respectively. Each pillar is associated with the performers and their actions.[27]
The stage is made entirely of unfinishedhinoki, Japanese cypress, with almost no decorative elements. The poet and novelistTōson Shimazaki writes that "on the stage of the Noh theatre there are no sets that change with each piece. Neither is there a curtain. There is only a simple panel (kagami-ita) with a painting of a greenpine tree. This creates the impression that anything that could provide any shading has been banished. To break such monotony and make something happen is no easy thing."[18]
Another unique feature of the stage is thehashigakari, a narrow bridge at upstage right used by actors to enter the stage.Hashigakari means "suspension bridge", signifying something aerial that connects two separate worlds on a same level. The bridge symbolizes the mythic nature of Noh plays in which otherworldly ghosts and spirits frequently appear. In contrast,hanamichi inKabuki theatres is literally a path (michi) that connects two spaces in a single world, thus has a completely different significance.[18]
Noh actors wear silk costumes calledshozoku (robes) along with wigs, hats, and props such as the fan. With striking colors, elaborate texture, and intricate weave and embroidery, Noh robes are truly works of art in their own right. Costumes for theshite in particular are extravagant, shimmering silk brocades, but are progressively less sumptuous for thetsure, thewakizure, and theaikyōgen.[18]
For centuries, in accordance with the vision of Zeami, Noh costumes emulated the clothing that the characters would genuinely wear, such as the formal robes for a courtier and the street clothing for a peasant or commoner. But in the late sixteenth century, the costumes became stylized with certain symbolic and stylistic conventions. During the Edo (Tokugawa) period, the elaborate robes given to actors by noblemen andsamurai in theMuromachi period were developed as costumes.[28]
The musicians and chorus typically wear formalmontsukikimono (black and adorned with five family crests) accompanied by eitherhakama (a skirt-like garment) orkami-shimo, a combination ofhakama and a waist-coat with exaggerated shoulders. Finally, the stage attendants are garbed in virtually unadorned black garments, much in the same way as stagehands in contemporary Western theatre.[12]
The use of props in Noh is minimalistic and stylized. The most commonly used prop in Noh is thefan, as it is carried by all performers regardless of role. Chorus singers and musicians may carry their fan in hand when entering the stage, or carry it tucked into theobi(the sash). The fan is usually placed at the performer's side when he or she takes position, and is often not taken up again until leaving the stage. During dance sequences, the fan is typically used to represent any and all hand-held props, such as a sword, wine jug, flute, or writing brush. The fan may represent various objects over the course of a single play.[18]
When hand props other than fans are used, they are usually introduced or retrieved bykuroko who fulfill a similar role to stage crew in contemporary theatre. Like their Western counterparts, stage attendants for Noh traditionally dress in black, but unlike in Western theatre they may appear on stage during a scene, or may remain on stage during an entire performance, in both cases in plain view of the audience. The all-black costume ofkuroko implies they are not part of the action on stage and are effectively invisible.[12]
Set pieces in Noh such as the boats, wells, altars, and bells, are typically carried onto the stage before the beginning of the act in which they are needed. These props normally are only outlines to suggest actual objects, although the great bell, a perennial exception to most Noh rules for props, is designed to conceal the actor and to allow a costume change during thekyōgen interlude.[25][page needed]
Noh theatre is accompanied by a chorus and ahayashi ensemble (Noh-bayashi 能囃子). Noh is a chanted drama, and a few commentators have dubbed it "Japaneseopera". However, the singing in Noh involves a limited tonal range, with lengthy, repetitive passages in a narrow dynamic range. Texts are poetic, relying heavily on the Japanese seven-five rhythm common to nearly all forms ofJapanese poetry, with an economy of expression, and an abundance of allusion. The singing parts of Noh are called "Utai" and the speaking parts "Kataru".[29] The music has many blank spaces (ma) in between the actual sounds, and these negative blank spaces are in fact considered the heart of the music. In addition toutai, Nohhayashi ensemble consists of four musicians, also known as the "hayashi-kata", including three drummers, which play theshime-daiko,ōtsuzumi (hip drum), andkotsuzumi (shoulder drum) respectively, and anohkan flutist.[18]
The chant is not always performed "in character"; that is, sometimes the actor will speak lines or describe events from the perspective of another character or even a disinterested narrator. Far from breaking the rhythm of the performance, this is actually in keeping with the otherworldly feel of many Noh plays, especially in those characterized asmugen.
There are 240 in the current repertoire performed by the five existing Noh schools.[30] However, roughly 2,000 plays created for Noh are known today. The current repertoire is heavily influenced by the taste of aristocratic class in Tokugawa period and does not necessarily reflect popularity among the commoners.[4] There are several ways to classify Noh plays.
All Nohplays can be classified into three broad categories.[12]
Genzai Noh (現在能, "present Noh") features human characters and events unfold according to a linear timeline within the play.
Mugen Noh (夢幻能, "supernatural Noh") involves supernatural worlds, featuring gods, spirits, ghosts, or phantasms in theshite role. Time is often depicted as passing in anon-linear fashion, and action may switch between two or more timeframes from moment to moment, including flashbacks.
Ryōkake Noh (両掛能, "mixed Noh"), though somewhat uncommon, is ahybrid of the above with the first act beingGenzai Noh and the second actMugen Noh.
WhileGenzai Noh utilizes internal and external conflicts to drive storylines and bring out emotions,Mugen Noh focuses on utilizingflashbacks of the past and the deceased to invoke emotions.[12]
Additionally, all Noh plays may be categorized by their style.
Geki Noh (劇能) is a drama piece based around the advancement of plot and the narration of action.
Furyū Noh (風流能) is little more than a dance piece characterized by elaborate stage action, often involving acrobatics, stage properties, and multiple characters.[4]
Okina hōnō (dedication of Noh playA Venerable Old Man) onNew Year's Day
All Noh plays are divided by their themes into the following five categories. This classification is considered the most practical, and is still used in formal programming choices today.[4] Traditionally, a formal 5-play program is composed of a selection from each of the groups.[12]
Kami mono (神物, god plays) orwaki Noh (脇能) typically feature theshite in the role of a deity to tell the mythic story of a shrine or praise a particular god. Many of them structured in two acts, the deity takes a human form in disguise in the first act and reveals the real self in the second act. (e.g.Takasago,Chikubushima)[4][12]
Shura mono (修羅物, warrior plays) orashura Noh (阿修羅能) takes its name from theBuddhist underworld. The protagonist appearing as a ghost of a famoussamurai pleads to a monk for salvation and the drama culminates in a glorious re-enactment of the scene of his death in a full war costume. (e.g.Tamura,Atsumori)[4][12]
Katsura mono (鬘物, wig plays) oronna mono (女物, woman plays) depict theshite in a female role and feature some of the most refined songs and dances in all of Noh, reflecting the smooth and flowing movements representing female characters. (e.g.Basho,Matsukaze)[4][12]
There are about 94 "miscellaneous" plays traditionally performed in the fourth place in a five-play program. These plays include subcategorieskyōran mono (狂乱物, madness plays),onryō mono (怨霊物,vengeful ghost plays),genzai mono (現在物, present plays), as well as others. (e.g.Aya no tsuzumi,Kinuta)[4][12]
Kiri Noh (切り能, final plays) oroni mono (鬼物, demon plays) usually feature theshite in the role of monsters, goblins, or demons, and are often selected for their bright colors and fast-paced, tense finale movements. Kiri Noh is performed the last in a five-play program.[4] There are roughly 30 plays in this category, most of which are shorter than the plays in the other categories.[12]
In addition to the above five,Okina (翁) (orKamiuta) is frequently performed at the very beginning of the program, especially at New Year, holidays, and other special occasions.[31] Combining dance withShinto ritual, it is considered the oldest type of Noh play.[12]
Samuel Beckett[32] – Yoshihiko Ikegami considers Beckett'sWaiting for Godot a parody of Noh, particularlyKami Noh, in which a god or a spirit appears before a secondary character as the protagonist. Ikegami argues that "the dramatic conflict which was much in evidence in Yeats is so completely discarded that Beckett's theatre (where 'nothing happens') comes to look even closer to Noh than Yeats's did."[33]
Bertolt Brecht – According to Maria P. Alter, Brecht began reading Japanese plays during the middle twenties and have read at least 20 Noh plays translated into German by 1929. Brecht'sDer Jasager is an adaptation of a Noh playTaniko. Brecht himself identifiedDie Massnahme as an adaptation of Noh play.[34]
Peter Brook – Yoshi Oida, a Japanese actor with training in Noh, began working with Brook in their production ofThe Tempest in 1968. Oida later joined Brook's company.[35]
Paul Claudel[32] – According toJohn Willett, Paul Claudel learned about Noh during the time he served as French Ambassador to Japan. Claudel's operaChristophe Colomb shows an unmistakable influence of the Noh.[36]
Jacques Copeau – In 1923, Copeau worked on a Noh play,Kantan, along withSuzanne Bing atThéâtre du Vieux-Colombier, without ever having seen a Noh play. Thomas Leabhart states that "Jacques Copeau was drawn instinctively by taste and tendency to a restrained theatre which was based in spirituality." Copeau praised Noh theatre in writing when he finally saw a production in 1930.[37]
Guillaume Gallienne -Deguchinashi (Huis-Clos) by Jean-Paul Sartre, a Noh version of Sartre's play directed by Guillaume Gallienne at the Noh Tessenkai theatre, Tokyo in 2006.[38]
Thornton Wilder[32][40] – Wilder himself expressed his interest in Noh in his "Preface” toThree Plays and his sister Isabel Wilder also confirmed his interests. Wilder's workOur Town incorporates various elements of Noh such as lack of plot, representative characters, and use of ghosts.[41]
William Henry Bell – An English composer Bell wrote music for modern presentation of several Noh plays, includingKomachi (1925),Tsuneyo of the Three Trees (1926),Hatsuyuki (1934),The Pillow of Kantan (1935), andKageyiko (1936).[42]
Benjamin Britten[32] – Britten visited Japan in 1956 and saw for the first time Japanese Noh plays, which he called "some of the most wonderful drama I have ever seen."[43] The influences were seen and heard in his balletThe Prince of the Pagodas (1957) and later in two of the three semi-operatic "Parables for Church Performance":Curlew River (1964) andThe Prodigal Son (1968).[44]
David Byrne – Byrne encountered Noh when he was on tour in Japan withTalking Heads and he was inspired by the highly stylized practices of Noh, completely different from its Western counterparts that focus onnaturalism.[45] According toJosh Kun, "Japanese Noh theatre inspired him to design the oversize business suit that became a visual staple of Talking Heads live shows."[46]
Alan Watts – 20th century philosopher, the liner notes from his third song off the 1962 album 'This is IT' state "Watts in a Japanese no-noh."
Harry Partch – Partch called his workDelusion of the Fury "a ritualistic web". Kate Molleson wrote for 'The Guardian that "the narrative is a bleary mix of Japanese Noh theatre, Ethiopian folk mythology, Greek drama and his own wacky imagination".[47] Will Salmon cites Partch himself writing, "Noh has been for centuries a fine art, one of the most sophisticated the world has known."Delusion of the Fury incorporates two Noh plays,Atsumori by Zeami andIkuta by Zenbō Motoyasu, into its story.[48]
Karlheinz Stockhausen – The essentially plotless libretto of Stockhausen's grand operatic cycleLicht ("Light") is based on "a mythology drawing on multiple cultural traditions, from Japanese Noh theatre to German folklore".[49]
Iannis Xenakis – Xenakis "admired Noh, the venerable theatrical form known for its ritualistic formality and gestural complexity."[50] Electronic Music Foundation presentedXenakis & Japan in March 2010, "a dance/music event highlighting Xenakis' lifelong interest in Japanese music and theatre". The event featured a female Noh performer, Ryoko Aoki.[51]
W. B. Yeats[32][54] – Yeats wrote an essay on Noh titled "Certain Noble Plays of Japan" in 1916. As much as he tried to learn Noh, there were limited resources available in England at the time. The lack of complete understanding of Noh led him to create innovative works guided by his own imagination and what he fantasized Noh to be.[55] Yeats wrote four plays heavily influenced by Noh, using ghosts or supernatural beings as the centraldramatis personae for the first time. The plays areAt the Hawk's Well,The Dreaming of the Bones,The Words upon the Window-Pane, andPurgatory.[33]
Zeami and Zenchiku describe a number of distinct qualities that are thought to be essential to the proper understanding of Noh as an art form.
Hana (花, flower): In theKadensho (Instructions on the Posture of the Flower), Zeami describeshana saying "after you master the secrets of all things and exhaust the possibilities of every device, thehana that never vanishes still remains."[18] The true Noh performer seeks to cultivate a rarefied relationship with his audience similar to the way that one cultivates flowers. What is notable abouthana is that, like a flower, it is meant to be appreciated by any audience, no matter how lofty or how coarse his upbringing.Hana comes in two forms. Individualhana is the beauty of the flower of youth, which passes with time, while "truehana" is the flower of creating and sharing perfect beauty through performance.
Yūgen (幽玄, profound sublimity):Yūgen is a concept valued in various forms of art throughout Japanese culture. Originally used to mean elegance or grace representing the perfect beauty inwaka,yūgen is invisible beauty that is felt rather than seen in a work of art. The term is used specifically in relation to Noh to mean the profound beauty of the transcendental world, including mournful beauty involved in sadness and loss.[18]
Rōjaku (老弱):Rō means old, andjaku means tranquil and quiet. Rōjaku is the final stage of performance development of the Noh actor, in which he eliminates all unnecessary action or sound in the performance, leaving only the true essence of the scene or action being imitated.[18]
Kokoro orshin (both 心): Defined as "heart," "mind," or both. The kokoro of noh is that which Zeami speaks of in his teachings, and is more easily defined as "mind." To develop hana the actor must enter a state of no-mind, ormushin.
Myō (妙): the "charm" of an actor who performs flawlessly and without any sense of imitation; he effectively becomes his role.
Monomane (物真似, imitation or mimesis): the intent of a Noh actor to accurately depict the motions of his role, as opposed to purely aesthetic reasons for abstraction or embellishment.Monomane is sometimes contrasted withyūgen, although the two represent endpoints of a continuum rather than being completely separate.
Kabu-isshin (歌舞一心, "song-dance-one heart"): the theory that the song (including poetry) and dance are two halves of the same whole, and that the Noh actor strives to perform both with total unity of heart and mind.
Noh is still regularly performed today in public theatres as well as private theatres mostly located in major cities. There are more than 70 Noh theatres throughout Japan, presenting both professional and amateur productions.[56]
Public theatres includeNational Noh Theatre (Tokyo),Nagoya Noh Theater, Osaka Noh Theater, andFukuoka Noh Theater. Each Noh school has its own permanent theatre, such as Kanze Noh Theater (Tokyo), Hosho Noh Theater (Tokyo), Kita Noh Theatre (Tokyo), Kongo Noh Theater (Kyoto), Nara Komparu Noh Theater (Nara), andTaka no Kai (Fukuoka). Additionally, there are various prefectural and municipal theatres located throughout Japan that present touring professional companies and local amateur companies. In some regions, unique regional Noh such asOgisai Kurokawa Noh have developed to form schools independent from five traditional schools.[18]
Audience etiquette is generally similar to formal Western theatre, where the audience quietly watches.Surtitles are rarely used (e.g., at the National Noh Theatre in Tokyo), but some audience members follow along in thelibretto. Because there are no curtains on the stage, the performance begins with the actors entering the stage and ends with their leaving the stage. The house lights are usually kept on during the performances, creating an intimate feel that provides a shared experience between the performers and the audience.[12]
At the end of the play, the actors file out slowly (most important first, with gaps between actors), and while they are on the bridge (hashigakari), the audience claps restrainedly. Between actors, clapping ceases, then begins again as the next actor leaves. Unlike in Western theatre, there is no bowing, nor do the actors return to the stage after having left. A play may end with theshite character leaving the stage as part of the story (as inKokaji, for instance), rather than ending with all characters on stage, in which case one claps as the character exits.[23]
During the interval,tea,coffee, andwagashi (Japanese sweets) may be served in the lobby. In the Edo period, when Noh was a day-long affair, more substantialmakunouchi'bentō (幕の内弁当, "between-acts lunchbox") were served. On special occasions, when the performance is over, お神酒 (o-miki, ceremonialsake) may be served in the lobby on the way out, as it happens inShinto rituals.
The audience is seated in front of the stage, to the left side of the stage, and in the corner front-left of stage; these are in order of decreasing desirability. While themetsuke-bashira pillar obstructs the view of the stage, the actors are primarily at the corners, not the center, and thus the two aisles are located where the views of the two main actors would be obscured, ensuring a generally clear view regardless of seating.[12]
^The unaccented pronunciation is only optionally used for the performing art. For the more general "ability" sense, only the accented pronunciation is found.
^abcdefghDr. Sky (2014).Therapeutic Noh Theater: Sohkido Pathway VII of the Seven Pathways of Transpersonal Creativity. Two Harbors Press.ISBN978-1626528222.
^abTakahashi, Yasunari; Ikegami, Yoshihiko (1991). "The Ghost Trio: Beckett, Yeats, and Noh".The Empire of Signs: Semiotic Essays on Japanese Culture. Foundations of Semiotics.8:257–267.doi:10.1075/fos.8.12tak.ISBN978-90-272-3278-6.
^Collasse, R.Dictionnaire amoureux du Japon, Paris, Plon 2021.
^Hori, Mariko (1994). "Aspects of Noh Theatre in Three Late O'Neill Plays".Eugene O'Neill Review.18 (1/2): 143.
^Londraville, Richard (1999). Blank, Martin; Brunauer, Dalma Hunyadi; Izzo, David Garrett (eds.).Thornton Wilder: New Essays. West Cornwall, Connecticut: Locust Hill. pp. 365–378.
^Britten, Benjamin (2008).Letters from a Life: The Selected Letters of Benjamin Britten, Volume IV, 1952–1957. London: The Boydell Press.ISBN9781843833826.
Zeami Motokiyo (1984).On the Art of the Nō Drama: The Major Treatises of Zeami. Trans.J. Thomas Rimer. Ed. Masakazu Yamazaki. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
P.G. O'Neil,A Guide to No, Hinoki Shoten, 1954, ISBN 9784827909814.
The Okina Project,The Book of Okina, Hinoki Shoten, 2025, ISBN 9784827911190.
Chifumi Shimazaki & Stephen Comee,Supernatural Beings from Japanese Noh Plays of the Fifth Group: Parallel Translations With Running Commentary (Cornell East Asia Series, 161), Cornell University, 2012, ISBN 9781933947310.
Thomas D. Looser,Visioning Eternity: Aesthetics, Politics, and History in the Early Modern Noh Theater (Cornell East Asia Series), Cornell University, 2008, ISBN 978-1933947389.
Chifumi Shimazaki,Troubled Souls from Japanese Noh Plays of the Fourth Group: Kanawa, Semimaru, Kogo, Eboshi-Ori, Jinen Koji and Kagekiyo (Cornell East Asia Series), Cornell University, 1998, ISBN 978-1885445957.
Mae J. Smethurst & Christina Laffin,The Noh Ominameshi: A Flower Viewed from Many Directions (Cornell East Asia), Cornell University, 2003, ISBN 978-1885445186.
Mae Smethurst,Dramatic Representations of Filial Piety: Five Noh in Translation (Cornell East Asia Series), Cornell University, 1998, ISBN 978-1885445971.
Beng Choo Lim,Another Stage: Kanze Nobumitsu and the Late Muromachi Noh Theater (Cornell East Asia Series, 163), Cornell University, 2012, ISBN 978-1933947631.
Chifumi Shimazaki,Restless Spirits: From Japanese Noh Plays of the Fourth Group (Cornell East Asia Series Volume 76), Cornell University, 1995, ISBN 978-0939657780.
Chifumi Shimazaki,Warrior Ghost Plays from the Japanese Noh Theater: Parallel Translations With Running Commentary (Cornell East Asia Series), Cornell University, 1993, ISBN 978-0939657605.
P.G. O'Neil,Early Noh Drama: Its Background, Character and Development 1300-1450 (London: Lund Humphries, 1958).
Daiji Maruoka & Tatsuo Yoshikoshi, translated by Don Kenny,Noh (Osaka: Hoikusha, 1987).
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