There is considerable linguistic, cultural, artistic and social diversity among the many Malay subgroups, mainly due to hundreds of years of immigration and assimilation of various regional ethnicity and tribes withinMaritime Southeast Asia. Historically, the Malay population is descended primarily from the earlierMalayic-speaking Austronesians andAustroasiatic tribes who founded several ancient maritime trading states and kingdoms, notablyBrunei,Kedah,Langkasuka,Gangga Negara,Chi Tu,Nakhon Si Thammarat,Pahang,Melayu, andSrivijaya.[15][16]
The advent of theMalacca Sultanate in the 15th century triggered a major revolution in Malay history, the significance of which lies in its far-reaching political and cultural legacy. Common definitive markers ofMalayness—the religion ofIslam, theMalay language and traditions—are thought to have been promulgated during this era, resulting in theethnogenesis of the Malay as a majorethnoreligious group in the region.[17] In literature, architecture,culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts and royal court traditions, Malacca set a standard that later Malay sultanates emulated. The golden age of theMalay sultanates in theMalay Peninsula,Sumatra andBorneo saw many of their inhabitants, particularly from various tribal communities like theBatak,Dayak,Orang Asli, and theOrang Laut become subject toIslamisation andMalayisation.[18] In the course of history, the term "Malay" has been extended to other ethnic groups within the "Malay world"; this usage is nowadays largely confined to Malaysia and Singapore,[19] where descendants of immigrants from these ethnic groups are termed asanak dagang ("traders") and who are predominantly from theIndonesian archipelago, such as theAcehnese,Banjarese,Bawean,Bugis,Mandailing,Minangkabau, andJavanese.
Throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics.[20][21] Theyabsorbed,shared andtransmitted numerous cultural features of other local ethnic groups, such as those of Minangkabau and Acehnese.
The epic literature theMalay Annals associates the etymological origin of "Melayu" to a small river namedSungai Melayu ('Melayu river') inSumatra, Indonesia. The epic incorrectly stated that the river flowed to theMusi River inPalembang, while in reality it flowed to theBatang Hari River inJambi.[22]: 298 The term is thought to be derived from theMalay wordmelaju, a combination of the verbalprefix 'me' and theroot word 'laju', meaning "to accelerate", used to describe the accelerating strong current of the river.[23]
Prior to the 15th century, the term "Melayu" and its similar-sounding variants appear to apply as an oldtoponym to theStrait of Malacca region in general.[24]
Malaya Dwipa, "MalayaDvipa", is described in chapter 48,Vayu Purana as one of the provinces in the eastern sea that was full of gold and silver. Some scholars equate the term withSumatra,[25] but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainousMalay Peninsula, while Sumatra is more correctly associated withSuvarnadvipa.[26][27][28][29][30]
Mo-lo-yu – mentioned byYijing, aTang dynastyChinese Buddhist monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695. According to Yijing, theMo-Lo-Yu kingdom was located at a distance of 15 days sailing from Bogha (Palembang), the capital of Sribhoga (Srivijaya). It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha (Kedah) from Mo-lo-yu; therefore, it can be reasoned that Mo-Lo-Yu would lie halfway between the two places.[32] A popular theory relatesMo-Lo-Yu with theJambi in Sumatra,[17] however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jing's description of a "half way sail betweenKa-Cha (Kedah) andBogha (Palembang)". In the laterYuan dynasty (1271–1368) andMing dynasty (1368–1644), the wordMa-La-Yu was mentioned often in Chinese historical texts – with changes in spelling due to the time span between the dynasties – to refer to a nation near the southern sea. Among the terms used was "Bôk-lá-yù", "Mók-là-yū" (木剌由), Má-lì-yù-er (麻里予兒), Oō-laì-yu (巫来由) — traced from the written source of monkXuanzang) and Wú-laī-yû (無来由).
Malaiyur – mentioned in theTanjore inscription. It was described as a kingdom that had "a strong mountain for its rampart" that fell to the Chola invaders duringRajendra Chola I's campaign in the 11th century. It may have been situated in Sumatra, between Pannai and Srivijaya (Palembang),[33]: 77–78, 170 possibly in theMuaro Jambi archaeological site.[34]: 405
Malai – mentioned by the 12th century Arab geographerMuhammad al-Idrisi inTabula Rogeriana, it described the Malay peninsula as a long island and called it Malai, bordering the Qmer (Khmer) and lying 12 days sail from Sanf (Champa).[35][36]
Bhūmi Mālayu – (literally "Land of Malayu"), a transcription fromPadang Roco Inscription dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana.[37] The term is associated withDharmasraya kingdom.
Ma-li-yu-er – mentioned in the chronicle ofYuan dynasty, referring to a nation of the Malay Peninsula that faced the southward expansion ofSukhothai Kingdom, during the reign ofRam Khamhaeng.[38] The chronicle stated: "..Animosity occurred betweenSiam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other ...". In response to the Sukhothai's action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaeng's court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree: "Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er".[39]
Malauir – mentioned inMarco Polo'saccount as a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula,[40][41] possibly similar to the one mentioned in Yuan chronicle.
Other suggestions include theJavanese wordmlayu (as a verb: to run, participle: fugitive), or the Malay termmelaju (to steadily accelerate), referring to the high mobility and migratory nature of its people. De Barros (1552) mentioned thatIskandar Shah named theMalaios (Malays) so because of the banishment of his father from his country. Albuquerque explained thatParameswara fled (malayo) from the kingdom of Palembang to Malacca.[42]
Portuguese watercolour of Malayan people of Malacca, circa 1540, featured in theCódice Casanatense
An illustration of a Malay couple, fromReise nach Batavia, between 1669 and 1682
Joget dance from theMalacca Sultanate; many aspects of Malay culture are derived from the Malaccan court
The word "Melayu" as anethnonym, to allude to a clearly different ethnological cluster, is assumed to have been made fashionable throughout the integration of the Malacca Sultanate as a regional power in the 15th century. It was applied to report the social partialities of the Malaccans as opposed to foreigners as of the similar area, especially theJavanese andThais.[43] This is evidenced from the early 16th century Malay word-list byAntonio Pigafetta who joined theMagellan's circumnavigation, that made a reference to how the phrasechiara Malaiu ('Malay ways') was used in themaritime Southeast Asia, to refer to theal parlare de Malaea (Italian for "to speak of Malacca").[44]
Classical Malay literature described the Malays in a narrower sense than the modern interpretation.Hikayat Hang Tuah (ca. 1700, manuscript ca. 1849) only identifies the Malay people as the subject of Malacca Sultanate; Brunei, at that time, is not considered Malay.Hikayat Patani (manuscript: 1876) for example, does not call Patani and Brunei as Malay, that term is only used forJohor. Kedah is not included as Malay in the Kedah chronicle/Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (ca. 1821).Hikayat Aceh (ca. 1625, manuscript ca. 1675) linked Malay ethnicity with Johor, but certainly not Aceh or Deli.[45][46]
Also known asMelayu asli (aboriginal Malays) orMelayu purba (ancient Malays), theProto-Malays are ofAustronesian origin and thought to have migrated to theMalay Archipelago in a long series of migrations between 2500 and 1500 BCE.[47] NotableProto-Malays of today areMoken,Jakun,Orang Kuala,Temuan andOrang Kanaq.[48]The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History, has pointed out a total of three theories of the origin of Malays:
TheYunnan theory (published in 1889) – The theory of Proto-Malays originating from Yunnan approximately 4,000 to 6,000 years ago. The theory is supported by R.H Geldern and his team who theorised that their migration occurred from the Mekong River to the Malay Peninsula. Other evidence that supports this theory includes stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago being analogous to Central Asian tools, which shows the similarity of Malay andAssamese customs.[49]
The New Guinea/Seafarers theory (published in 1965) – The migration of seafarers with strong oceanographic skills who travelled from island to island between New Zealand and Madagascar. The theory claims the Malay's morphology at the time were similar to that of Negroids.[49]
TheTaiwan theory (published in 1997) – The migration of a group of people fromSouthern China occurred 6,000 years ago, some moved to Taiwan (today'sTaiwanese aborigines are their descendants), then to thePhilippines and later toBorneo (roughly 4,500 years ago) (today'sDayak and other groups). These ancient people also split with some heading toSulawesi and others progressing intoJava, andSumatra, all of which now speak languages that belong to the Austronesian Language family. The final migration was to the Malay Peninsula roughly 3,000 years ago. A sub-group from Borneo moved to Champa in modern-day Central and South Vietnam roughly 4,500 years ago. There are also traces of theDong Son andHoabinhian migration from Vietnam and Cambodia. All these groups share DNA and linguistic origins traceable to the island that is today Taiwan, and the ancestors of these ancient people are traceable to southern China.[50]
Ladies fromPalembang clad in their traditional attire, known asBaju Kurung made fromSongket. The dress is commonly associated with women of Malay extraction.
The Deutero-Malays are anIron Age people descended partly from the subsequentAustronesian peoples who came equipped with more advanced farming techniques and new knowledge of metals.[51][52][53] The Deutero-Malay settlers were notnomadic like their predecessors: instead they settled and establishedkampungs which serve as the main units in society. These kampungs were normally situated on the riverbanks or coastal areas and generally self-sufficient in food and other necessities. By the end of the 1st century BCE, these kampungs were beginning to engage in some trade with the outside world.[54] The Deutero-Malays are considered the direct ancestors of the present-day Malay people.[55]
A more recent theory holds that rather than being populated by expansion from the mainland, theIce Age populations of the Malay Peninsula, neighbouring Indonesian Archipelago, and the then-exposed continental shelf (Sundaland) instead developed locally from the first human settlers and expanded to the mainland. Proponents of this theory hold that this expansion gives a far more parsimonious explanation of the linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence than earlier models, particularly the Taiwan model.[56] This theory also draws support from recent genetic evidence byHuman Genome Organisation suggesting that the primary peopling of Asia occurred in a single migration through Southeast Asia; this route is held to be the modern Malay area and that the diversity in the area developed mainly in-place without requiring major migrations from the mainland. The expansion itself may have been driven byrising sea levels at the end of the Ice Age.[57][58]
ProponentStephen Oppenheimer has further theorised that the expansion of peoples occurred in three rapid surges due to rising sea levels at the end of the Ice Age, and that this diaspora spread the peoples and their associated cultures, myths, and technologies not just to mainland Southeast Asia, but as far as India, the Near East, and the Mediterranean. Reviewers have found his proposals for the original settlement and dispersal worthy of further study, but have been sceptical of his morediffusionist claims.[59][60][61]
Malays are an Austronesian-speaking ethnic group ofInsular Southeast Asia, and theMalay Peninsula. According to a 2015 study, Malays from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and Sri Lanka have 4 major ancestral components, including Austronesian (17%–62%), Proto-Malay (15%–31%), East Asian (4%–16%) and South Asian (3%–34%). But the Austronesian and Southeast Asian aboriginal components were more significant for Malays from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia than East Asian and South Asian. In contrast, Malays from Sri Lanka possessed about 34% South Asian ancestry in their genetic makeup, making them relatively distinct.[62]
A study in 2021 concluded that a distinctiveBasal-East Asian lineage (sometimes termed as 'East- and Southeast Asian lineage' (ESEA)), which is ancestral to modern East and Southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Siberians, originated inMainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000 BCE, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Basal-East Asian ancestry, as well as laterAustroasiatic-associated ancestry, spread intoMaritime Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian expansion. Austronesian-speakers themselves are suggested to have arrived onTaiwan and the northern Philippines between 10,000 and 7,000 BCE from coastal southern China, and spread from there throughout Insular Southeast Asia. The authors concluded that the Austronesian expansion into Insular Southeast Asia andPolynesia was outgoing from the Philippines rather than Taiwan, and that modern Austronesian-speaking peoples, such as the Malays, have largely ancestry from the earliest Basal-East Asians, Austroasiatic migrants from Mainland Southeast Asia, and Austronesian-speaking seafarers from the Philippines, without much admixture from previous groups.[63][64]
There is no definite evidence which dates the firstIndian voyages across theBay of Bengal but conservative estimates place the earliest arrivals on Malay shores at least 2,000 years ago. The discovery of jetty remains, iron smelting sites, and a clay brick monument dating back to 110 CE in theBujang Valley, shows that a maritime trading route with South IndianTamil kingdoms was already established since the second century.[65]
The growth of trade with India brought coastal people in much of maritime Southeast Asia into contact with the major religions ofHinduism andBuddhism. Throughout this area a most profound in influence has been exerted by India which seems to have introduced into it architecture, sculpture, writing, monarchy, religion, iron, cotton and a host of elements of higher culture. Indian religions, cultural traditions andSanskrit began to spread across the land.Hindu temples were built in the Indian style, local kings began referring to themselves as "raja" and more desirable aspects of Indian government were adopted.[66]
The beginning of the Common Era saw the rise of Malay states in the coastal areas of theSumatra andMalay Peninsula;Srivijaya,Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom,Gangga Negara,Langkasuka,Kedah,Pahang, theMelayu Kingdom andChi Tu. Between the 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, often prosperous peninsula and Sumatran maritime trading states, became part of themandala of Srivijaya,[67] a great confederation of city-states centred inSumatra.[68][69][page needed][68] Early during this period, the earliest known mention of the word "Malayu" was used in Chinese sources in 644 CE. Later in the mid-14th century, the word Malay was already recognised as a collective people sharing similar lineage, culture and lingua.[70]
Srivijaya's influence spread over all the coastal areas of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, westernJava and westernBorneo, as well as the rest of theMalay Archipelago. Enjoying both Indian and Chinese patronage, its wealth was gained mostly through trade. At its height, theOld Malay language was used as its official language and became thelingua franca of the region, replacing Sanskrit, the language of Hinduism.[66] The Srivijayan era is considered the golden age of Malay culture.
The glory of Srivijaya however began to drastically wane after the series of raids by the TamilChola dynasty in the 11th century. After the fall of Srivijaya in 1025 CE, the Melayu kingdom of Jambi in Sumatra, became the most dominant Malay state of the region.[71] By the end of the 13th century, the remnants of the Malay empire in Sumatra was finally destroyed by theJavanese invaders during thePamalayu expedition (Pamalayu means "war against the Malays").[72]
In 1299, through the support of the loyal servants of the empire, theOrang laut, a Malay prince of Palembang origin,Sang Nila Utama established theKingdom of Singapura inTemasek.[73] His dynasty ruled the island kingdom until the end of the 14th century, when the Malay polity once again faced the wrath of Javanese invaders. In 1400, his great-great-grandson,Parameswara, headed north and established theMalacca Sultanate.[74] The new kingdom succeeded Srivijaya and inherited much of the royal and cultural traditions, including a large part of the territories of its predecessor in Palembang.[75][76][77]
The timeline ofSrivijayan expansion fromPalembang between the 7th and 13th centuries; the state would subsequently be known asMelayu Kingdom before its demise. By the 14th century, a Palembangese-born prince,Parameswara, would later establish theKingdom of Malacca, bringing the old Palembangese courts traditions and identity into the newfound state.
In the north of the peninsula, the power vacuum left by the collapse of Srivijaya was filled by the growth of the kingdom ofTambralinga in the 12th century. Between the 13th and early 14th centuries, the kingdom succeeded to incorporate most of the Malay Peninsula under its mandala. The campaign led byChandrabhanu Sridhamaraja (1230–1263) managed to captureJaffna kingdom inSri Lanka between 1247 and 1258. He was eventually defeated by the forces of thePandyan dynasty from Tamil Nadu in 1263 and was killed by the brother of EmperorSadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I.[78] The invasion marked an unrivaled feature in thehistory of Southeast Asia, it was the only time there was an armed maritime expedition far beyond the boundaries of the region.
The cultivation of Malay polity system also diffused beyond the proper Sumatran-Peninsular border during this era. The age avowed by exploration and migration of the Malays to establish kingdoms beyond the traditional Srivijayan realm. Several exemplification are the enthronement of a Tambralingan prince to reign theLavo Kingdom in present-dayCentral Thailand and the establishment of theTanjungpura Kingdom in what is nowWest Kalimantan,Borneo.
The "Dayak-Malay" brotherhood monument in West Kalimantan Provincial Museum,Pontianak, Indonesia
The period of the 11th until 15th centuries saw the arrival ofIslam and the rise of the great port-city of Malacca on the southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula[79] — two major developments that altered the course of Malay history.
By the 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate, whose hegemony reached over much of the westernMalay Archipelago, had become the centre ofIslamisation in the east. As a Malaccan state religion, Islam brought many great transformation into the Malaccan society and culture, and It became the primary instrument in the evolution of a classical Malay identity. The Malaccan era witnessed the close association of Islam with Malay society and how it developed into a definitive marker of Malay identity.[16][81][82][83] Over time, this common Malay cultural idiom came to characterise much of the Malay Archipelago through theMalayisation process. The expansion of Malaccan influence through trade andDawah brought with it together theClassical Malay language,[84] the Islamic faith,[85] and the Malay Muslim culture;[86] the three core values ofKemelayuan ("Malayness").[87]
The extent of the Malaccan Sultanate in the 15th century, the legacy of the Malaccan court can be strongly witnessed in the construction of the Malaysociocultural framework until today.
Across theSouth China Sea in the 14th century, another Malay realm, theBruneian Empire was on the rise to become the most powerful polity inBorneo. By the middle of the 15th century, Brunei entered into a close relationship with the Malacca Sultanate. The sultan married a Malaccan princess, adopted Islam as the court religion, and introduced an efficient administration modelled on Malacca.[89] Brunei profited from trade with Malacca but gained even greater prosperity after the great Malay port was conquered by the Portuguese in 1511. It reached its golden age in the mid-16th century when it controlled land as far south as present dayKuching inSarawak, north towards thePhilippine Archipelago.[90] The empire broadened its influence inLuzon by defeating Datu Gambang of theKingdom of Tondo and by founding asatellite state,Kota Seludong in present-dayManila, setting up the Muslim Rajah,Rajah Sulaiman I as a vassal to the Sultanate of Brunei. Brunei also expanded its influence in Mindanao,Philippines when Sultan Bolkiah married Leila Macanai, the daughter of theSultan of Sulu. However, states like thekingdom of Pangasinan,Rajahnate of Cebu andKedatuan of Madja-as tried to resist Brunei's and Islam's spread into the Philippines. Brunei's fairly loose river based governmental presence in Borneo projected the process ofMalayisation.
Other significant Malay sultanates were theKedah Sultanate (1136–present),Kelantan Sultanate (1411–present),Patani Sultanate (1516–1771),Reman Kingdom (1785–1909) and Legeh Kingdom (1755–1902) that dominated the northern part of the Malay Peninsula.Jambi Sultanate (1460–1907),Palembang Sultanate (1550–1823) and Indragiri Sultanate (1298–1945) controlled much of the southeastern shores of Sumatra.Deli Sultanate (1632–1946),Serdang Sultanate (1728–1948),Langkat Sultanate (1568–1948) andAsahan Sultanate (1630–1948) governed eastern Sumatra. While West Borneo observed the rise ofPontianak Sultanate (1771–1950), Mempawah Sultanate (1740–1950) and Matan Sultanate (1590–1948), Sanggau Sultanate, Sintang Sultanate, and Sekadau Sultanate.
The reigning elite of theRiau-Lingga Sultanate in 1867, predominantly ofBugis-Malay descent. The sultanate would be abolished almost half a century later in 1911 by the Dutch powers, following its strong independence movement against thecolonial government.
Between 1511 and 1984, numerous Malay kingdoms and sultanates fell under directcolonisation or became theprotectorates of different foreign powers, from European colonial powers likePortuguese,Dutch andBritish, to regional powers likeAceh,Siam andJapan. In 1511, thePortuguese Empirecaptured the capital city of theMalacca Sultanate. The victorious Portuguese however, were unable to extend their political influence beyond thefort of Malacca. The Sultan maintained his overlordship on the lands outside Malacca and established theJohor Sultanate in 1528 to succeed Malacca.Portuguese Malacca faced several unsuccessful retaliation attacks by Johor until 1614, when the combined forces of Johor and theDutch Empire,ousted the Portuguese from the peninsula. As per agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch later took control of Malacca.[91]
Tuan Lebeh (seated, in the middle), theLong Raya orRaja Muda (crown prince) of theKingdom of Reman in 1899. The State ofReman was abolished by theRattanakosin Kingdom alongside various other Malay kingdoms that revolted for independence in the early 1902 includingPattani, Saiburi, Nongchik, Yaring, Yala, Legeh and Teluban.
Following theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 which divided theMalay Archipelago into a British zone in the north and a Dutch zone in the south, all Malay sultanates inSumatra andSouthern Borneo became part of theDutch East Indies. Though some of Malay sultans maintain their power under Dutch control,[98] some were abolished by the Dutch government under the accusation of retaliation against the colonial rule, like the case of Palembang Sultanate in 1823, Jambi Sultanate in 1906 andRiau Sultanate in 1911.
In the late 19th century, Germany sought to establish a naval base inLangkawi, requesting its lease from Siam, influenced by Grand AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitz's vision of using the island as a hub for a global submarine cable network.[99] With its deep natural harbour, Langkawi was strategically positioned between German territories in China and the Pacific, facilitating warship restocking and enhancing commercial interests for German investors. In October 1899, Behn, Meyer & Co approached Kedah's Crown Prince to lease the island for 50 years, but the plan faltered due to Siam's refusal, as dictated by the Secret Siamese Treaty of 1897, which required British consent for territorial concessions.[100] A subsequent attempt in 1900 to acquire Pulau Lontar was similarly dismissed, prompting British concerns over potential German expansion in the region and its implications for their economic and political dominance.
The prospect of a German annexation of the northern peninsula and the potential of its involvement for acommercial canal or railway network across theIsthmus of Kra, posed a serious threat to the British economic interest and political dominance in the region. Severely alarmed, the British and the Siamese entered the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, partitioning the peninsula between the British and the Siamese jurisdiction.
The Anglo-Siamese Treaty attested that the Siamese to control theupper portion of the peninsular while the lower region was to be held under theBritish dominance. The British originally planned for the inclusion ofReman, Legeh andSetul under their dominion together with a cluster of northern Malay states. Nonetheless, they only managed to secureKedah,Kelantan,Terengganu andPerlis under the agreement. The treaty also witnessed the state of Kedah being reduced the most, withTarutao,Butang islands groups,Sendawa,Langgu and the principality ofSetul were all being divorced into the Siamese hands, a similar fate was also followed in northeastern coast of Kelantan that was demanded to renounced their right on theTabal district, includingSungai Golok andSungai Padi; whilePerlis lost its Pujoh district. Then-British controlledFederated Malay State ofPerak however, saw an enlargement of their land area, withsouthern territories ofReman being transferred into the state and additionally Kelantan receivedJeli from Legeh (which had been under Siamese jurisdiction since 1902). The Siamese thenabdicated Tunku Baharuddin, theKing of Setul, the sole Malay kingdom remained under Siamese territory in 1916. The treaty nonetheless, manage to seal the fate of the Malay states ofKedah,Kelantan,Terengganu andPerlis to retain a degree of their sovereign powers under theBritish colonial government, a legacy that can be witnessed today in the Malaysian administrative system.
Later during theJapanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies,British Malaya andBorneo, the Japanese maintained a favourable relationship with the Sultans and other Malay leaders, this is partially composed to foster the trust of the Malay public that was generally loyal towards the sultan. Nonetheless, in a series of massacres known asPontianak incidents, the Japanese assassinated virtually all of theWest Kalimantan Malay sultans, including a large numbers of Malay intelligentsias after they have been falsely accused of planning an uprising andcoup d'etat against the Japanese. It was believed that West Kalimantan took two generations to recover from the near-total collapse of the Malay ruling class in the territory.
The bronze mural of the legendary Malay warrior,Hang Tuah with his renowned quoteTa' Melayu Hilang Di-Dunia (Malay for "Never shall the Malays vanish from the face of the earth") written on the top. The quote is a famous rallying cry forMalay nationalism.[101][102]
Despite the widespread distribution of the Malay population throughout the Malay Archipelago, modern Malay nationalism was only significantly mobilised in the early twentieth centuryBritish Malaya i. e. theMalay Peninsula. In theNetherlands Indies, the struggle against colonisation was characterised by the trans-ethnic nationalism: the so-called "Indonesian National Awakening" united people from the various parts of the Dutch colony in the development of a national consciousness as "Indonesians".[103] In Brunei, despite some attempt made to arouse Malay political consciousness between 1942 and 1945, there was no significant history of ethnic-based nationalism. In Thailand however,Pattani separatism against Thai rule is regarded by some historians as a part of the wider sphere of peninsular Malay nationalism. A similarsecession movement can be witnessed in modern-day Indonesia, where both autochthonously-Malay provinces ofRiau andRiau Islands sought to gain independence under the name of Republic of Riau. Nevertheless, what follows is specific to the peninsula Malay nationalism that resulted in the formation of theFederation of Malaya, later reconstituted as Malaysia.
The earliest and most influential instruments of Malay national awakening were theperiodicals which politicised the position of the Malays in the face of colonialism and alien immigration of non-Malays. In spite of repressions imposed by the British colonial government, there were no less than 147 journals and newspapers published inMalaya between 1876 and 1941. Among notable periodicals wereAl-Imam (1906),Pengasuh (1920),Majlis (1935) andUtusan Melayu (1939). The rise ofMalay nationalism was largely mobilised by three nationalist factions – the radicals distinguishable into the Malay left and the Islamic group which were both opposed to the conservative elites.[104]
The Malayleftists were represented byKesatuan Melayu Muda, formed in 1938 by a group of Malay intelligentsia primarily educated inSultan Idris Training College, with an ideal ofGreater Indonesia. In 1945, they reorganised themselves into a political party known as Partai Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya (PKMM). TheIslamists were originally represented byKaum Muda consisted of Middle east – educated scholars withPan-Islamic sentiment. The first Islamic political party wasPartai Orang Muslimin Malaya (Hizbul Muslimin) formed in March 1948, later succeeded byPan-Malayan Islamic Party in 1951. The third group wasthe conservatives consisted of the westernised elites who were bureaucrats and members of royal families that shared a common English education mostly at the exclusiveMalay College Kuala Kangsar. They formed voluntary organisations known asPersatuan Melayu ('Malay Associations') in various parts of the country with the primary goals of advancing and protecting the interests of Malays. In March 1946, 41 of these Malay associations formedUnited Malays National Organisation (UMNO), to assertMalay dominance over Malaya.[104]
The Malay andMalayness has been the fundamental basis for Malay ideology and Malay nationalism in Malaysia. All three Malay nationalist factions believed in the idea of aBangsa Melayu ('Malay Nation') and the position of Malay language, but disagreed over the role of Islam and Malay rulers. The conservatives supportedMalay language,Islam andMalay monarchy as constituting the key pillars of Malayness, but within a secular state that restricted the political role of Islam. The leftists concurred with thesecular state but wanted to endfeudalism, whereas the Islamic group favoured ending royalty but sought a much larger role ofIslam.[105]
In March 1946, UMNO emerged with the full support of the Malay sultans from theConference of Rulers. The new movement forged a close political link between rulers and subjects never before achieved. It generated an excited Malay public opinion which, together with the surprising political apathy of the non-Malays, led to Britain's abandonment of the radicalMalayan Union plan. By July, UMNO succeeded in obtaining an agreement with the British to begin negotiations for a new constitution. Negotiations continued from August to November, between British officials on the one hand, and the Sultans' representatives and UMNO and the other.[107]
Two years later the semi independentFederation of Malaya was born. The new constitutional arrangement largely reverted to the basic pattern of pre-war colonial rule and built on the supremacy of the individual Malay states. Malay rights and privileges were safeguarded. The traditionalMalay rulers thus retained their prerogatives, while their English-educated descendants came to occupy positions of authority at the centre, which was being progressively decolonised. In August 1957, theFederation of Malaya, the West's last major dependency in Southeast Asia, attained independence in apeaceful transfer of power.[107] The federation was reconstituted asMalaysia with the addition in 1963 ofSingapore (separated in 1965),Sabah andSarawak.
The Malay language is one of the most prominent languages of the world, especially of theAustronesian family. Variants and dialects of Malay are used as an official language inBrunei,Malaysia,Indonesia andSingapore. The language is also spoken in southernThailand,Cocos Islands,Christmas Island,Sri Lanka. It is spoken natively by approximately 33 million people throughout theMalay Archipelago and is used as a second language by an estimated 220 million.[108]
The oldest form of Malay is descended from theProto-Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the earliestAustronesian settlers in Southeast Asia. This form would later evolve intoOld Malay when Indian cultures and religions began penetrating the region. Old Malay contained some terms last until today, but remained unintelligible to modern speakers, while the modern language is already largely recognisable in writtenClassical Malay, which the oldest form dating back to 1303 CE.[109] Malay evolved into Classical Malay through the gradual influx of numerous Arabic and Persian vocabulary when Islam made its way to the region, changing significantly in the process. Initially, Classical Malay was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Malay kingdoms of Southeast Asia. One of these dialects, that was developed in the literary tradition of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, eventually became predominant.
The Malaccan era was marked with the transformation of the Malay language into an Islamic language, in similar fashion to Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Swahili. An adapted Arabic script calledJawi was used replacing the Kawi script, Islamic religious and cultural terminologies were abundantly assimilated, discarding many Hindu-Buddhist words, and Malay became the language of Islamic medium of instruction and dissemination throughout Southeast Asian region. At the height of Malacca's power in the 15th century, the Classical Malay spread beyond the traditional Malay speaking world[110] and resulted in alingua franca that was calledBahasa Melayu pasar ("Bazaar Malay") orBahasa Melayu rendah ("Low Malay") as opposed to theBahasa Melayu tinggi ("High Malay") of Malacca.[111] It is generally believed thatBazaar Malay was a pidgin and the most important development, however, has been that pidgin creolised, creating several new languages such as theAmbonese Malay,Manado Malay andBetawi language.[112]
European writers of the 17th and 18th centuries, such asTavernier,Thomassin andWerndly describe Malay as "language of the learned in all the Indies, likeLatin in Europe".[113] It is also the most widely used during British and Dutch colonial era in the Malay Archipelago.[114] The reversed was seen in theSpanish East Indies, where masslatinisation of the archipelago during the colonial years resulted the historicalcoup de grâce of the Malay language in the Philippines.
The Malay language was historically written inPallawa,Kawi andRencong. After the arrival of Islam,Arabic-basedJawi script was adopted and is still in use today as one of the two official scripts in Brunei and as an alternative script inMalaysia.[118] Beginning from the 17th century, as a result of British and Dutch colonisation, Jawi was gradually replaced by the Latin-basedRumi script[119] which eventually became the official modern script for Malay language in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, and co-official script in Brunei.
The rich oral literature and classical literature of the Malays contain a great number of portraits of the people, from theservant to the minister, from the judge to theRajas, from the ancient to the very contemporary periods, which together form the amorphous identity of the Malays.[120]
Considering the softness and mellifluence of the Malay language, which lends itself easily to the requirements of rhyme and rhythm, the originality and beauty in Malay literature can be assessed in its poetical elements. Among the forms of poetry in Malay literature are – thePantun,Syair andGurindam.
The earliest form of Malay literature was theoral literature and its central subjects are traditionalfolklore relating tonature, animals and people. The classical Malay folklore is composed of traditional songs and music, heroic poems, animal fables, ghost stories, past events, fairy tales, symbolic lore, myths and bardic tales. Each of the stories possessed its own energy in terms of character, spirit, backdrop and storytelling and was largely crafted with the intend of happiness, guidance, educating, reminiscing, explaining, among few. The folklore were memorised and passed from one generation of storytellers to the next. Many of these tales were also written down bypenglipur lara (storytellers) for example:Hikayat Malim Dewa,Hikayat Malim Deman,Hikayat Raja Donan,Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal, andHikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda.
When Indian influences made their way to the Malay Archipelago around 2000 years ago, Malay literature began incorporating Indian elements. Literature of this time is mostly translations ofSanskrit literature and romances, or at least some productions inspired by such, and is full of allusions toHindu mythology. Probably to this early time may be traced such works asHikayat Seri Rama (a free translation of theRamayana),Hikayat Bayan Budiman (an adaptation ofŚukasaptati) andHikayat Panca Tanderan (an adaptation ofHitopadesha).[121]
The era of classical Malay literature started after the arrival of Islam and the invention ofJawi script (Arabic based Malay script). Since then, Islamic beliefs and concepts began to make its mark on Malay literature. TheTerengganu Inscription Stone, which is dated to 1303, is the earliest known narrative Malay writing. The stone is inscribed with an account of history, law, andromance in Jawi script.[122] At its height, the Malacca Sultanate was not only the center of Islamisation, but also the center of Malay cultural expressions including literature. During this era, notableMiddle Eastern literary works were translated and religious books were written in Malay language. Among famous translated works areHikayat Muhammad Hanafiah andHikayat Amir Hamzah.
The rise of Malay literature during the period was also penned by other homegrown literary composition coloured by mysticalSufism of the middle-east, the notable works ofHamzah Fansuri such asAsrar al-Arifin (Rahsia Orang yang Bijaksana; The Secret of the Wise),Sharab al-Asyikin (Minuman Segala Orang yang Berahi; The Drink of All the Passionate) andZinat al-Muwahidin (Perhiasan Sekalian Orang yang Mengesakan; The Ornament of All the Devoted) can be seen as themagna opera of the era.
The most important piece of Malay literary works is perhaps the famedMalay Annals or Sulalatus Salatin. It was called "the most famous, distinctive and best of all Malay literary works" by one of the most prominent scholars in Malay studies,Sir Richard O. Winstedt.[123] The exact date of its composition and the identity of its original author are uncertain, but under the order ofSultan Alauddin Riaayat Shah III of Johor in 1612,Tun Sri Lanang oversaw the editorial and compilation process of the Malay Annals.[124]
In the 19th century, the Malay literature received some notable additions, includingKitab Ilmu Bedil (Book of Traditional Weaponry) that provides valuable details of traditional Malay ammunition and weaponry. The era also witnessed the wider usage of Malaymedical journals, known asKitab Tib. These works are indeed important as it serve as references to the Malay knowledge and technology during the classical era.[125] Other 19th century Malay texts were written in Sumatra, these include theKitab Pengetahuan Bahasa (Book of Linguistic Knowledge) by Raja Ali Haji andPerhimpunan Gunawan bagi Laki-Laki dan Perempuan (A Compendium of Charms for Men and Women) by Khatijah Terung, a wife of Raja Haji Abdullah bin Raja Hassan.[126]
The same century also witnessed a monumental shift in the Malay literature through writings ofAbdullah bin Abdul Kadir, a famousMalacca-bornmunshi ofSingapore.[121] Abdullah is regarded as the most cultured Malay who ever wrote,[121] one of the greatest innovators in Malay letters[110] and the father of modern Malay literature.[122] His most important works are theHikayat Abdullah (an autobiography),Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Kelantan (an account of his trip for the government toKelantan), andKisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Mekah (a narrative of hispilgrimage toMecca 1854). His work was an inspiration to future generations of writers and marks an early stage in the transition from classical Malay literature to modern Malay literature.[110]
The early Malay communities were largelyanimists, believing in the existence ofsemangat (spirits) in everything.[66] Around the opening of thecommon era,Hinduism andBuddhism were introduced by South Asian traders to the Malay Archipelago, where they flourished until the 13th century, just before the arrival of Islam brought by Arab, South Asian and Chinese Muslim traders.
In the 15th century, Islam of the orthodoxSunni sect flourished in the Malay world under the Malacca Sultanate. In contrast with Hinduism, which superficially transformed early Malay society, Islam can be said to have been fully integrated into the daily life of the population.[127] Since this era, the Malays are considered asethnoreligious group and traditionally had a close identification with Islam[128] and they have not changed their religion since.[127] This identity is so strong that it is said to become Muslim was tomasuk Melayu (to enter Malayness).[81]
Nevertheless, the earlier beliefs having deeper roots, they have maintained themselves against the anathemas of Islam – and indeedSufismmysticism have become intertwined among the Malays, with the spirits of the earlier animistic world and some elements of Hinduism.[129] Following the 1970s,Islamic revival (also referred as re-Islamisation[130]) throughout theMuslim world, many traditions that are regarded as contravene the teachings of Islam and contain elements ofshirk were abandoned by the Malays in Malaysia, whereas in among Malays in Indonesia, these traditions are not considered as superstitious and containing elements ofshirk. Among these traditions was themandi safar festival (Safar bath), a bathing festival to achieve spiritual purity, which can be discerned features similar to some of those of theDurga Puja of India.[131]
A vast majority of modern ethnic Malays are the adherents ofSunni Islam[132] and the most important Malay festivals are those ofIslamic origin —Hari Raya Aidilfitri,Hari Raya Aidiladha,Awal Muharram, andMaulidur Rasul. It is consideredapostasy for Malays to convert out of Islam in Malaysia and Brunei. However, there are a number of ethnic Malays living outside of these countries have also embraced other religions legally under the law.
Replica of theMalacca Sultanate's Palace, which was built from information and data obtained from theMalay Annals. This historical document had references to the construction and the architecture of palaces during the era ofSultan Mansur Shah, who ruled from 1458 to 1477.
Various cultural influences, notablyChinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture.[133] Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional buildings.[134] However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time ofSrivijaya and ancientisthmian Malay kingdoms.
Candi Muara Takus andCandi Muaro Jambi inSumatra are among the examples that associated with the architectural elements of Srivijaya Empire. However, Srivijayan architecture was mostly represented atChaiya (now a province inThailand) in the Malay Peninsula, which was an important centre during the Srivijaya period.[135][136] The type of structure consists of a cell-chamber to house theBuddha image and the summit of structure was erected in the form ofstupa with successive, superimposed terraces which is the best example atWat Pra Borom That of Chaiya.[137]
There is also evidence of Hindu shrines orCandi around southKedah between themount Jerai and theMuda River valley, an area known asBujang Valley. Within an area of about 350 square kilometres, 87 early historic religious sites have been reported and there are 12candis located on mountain tops, a feature which suggests may derive from pre-historic Malay beliefs regarding sanctity of high places.[138]
A wall panel adorned with various floral motives from theSetul Mambang Segara palatial residence as seen in theMuzium Negara. Setul was a historical Malay kingdom that existed between 1808 and 1915 in the northern Malay Peninsula.
Early reference on Malay architecture in the Malay Peninsula can be found in several Chinese records. A 7th-century Chinese account tells of Buddhist pilgrims calling atLangkasuka and mentioned the city as being surrounded by a wall on which towers had been built and was approached through double gates.[139] Another 7th-century account of a special Chinese envoy toRed Earth Kingdom in the Malay Peninsula, recorded that the capital city had three gates more than a hundred paces apart, which were decorated with paintings of Buddhist themes and female spirits.[140]
The first detailed description of Malay architecture was on the great woodenIstana ofMansur Shah of Malacca (reigned 1458–1477).[134] According toSejarah Melayu, the building had a raised seven bay structures on wooden pillars with a seven tiered roof in cooper shingles and decorated with gilded spires and Chinese glass mirrors.[141]
The traditionalMalay houses are built using simpletimber-frame structure. They have pitched roofs,porches in the front, high ceilings, many openings on the walls forventilation,[142] and are often embellished with elaboratewood carvings. The beauty and quality of Malay wood carvings were meant to serve as visual indicators of the social rank and status of the owners themselves.[143] TheSalinger House, which won the 1998 Aga Khan Architectural Award, is a modern example of this traditional design.[144][145]
Wood carving is a part of classical Malayvisual arts. The Malays had traditionally adorned their monuments, boats, weapons, tombs, musical instrument, and utensils by motives of flora, calligraphy, geometry and cosmic features. The art is done by partially removing the wood using sharp tools and following specific patterns, composition and orders. The art form, known asukir, is hailed as an act of devotion of the craftsmen to the creator and a gift to his fellowmen.[147]
The art form is mainly attributed to the abundance of timber on theMalay Archipelago and also by the skilfulness of the woodcarvers that have allowed the Malays to practice woodcarving as a craft. The natural tropical settings where flora and fauna are abundant has inspired the motives to be depicted in abstract or stylised form into the timber board. With the coming of Islam, geometric andIslamic calligraphy form were introduced in the wood carving. The woods used are typically from tropical hardwood species which is known to be durable and can resist the attacks of fungi, power-boots beetles and termites.[148]
A typical Malay traditional houses or mosque would have been adorned with more than 20 carved components. The carving on the walls and the panels allow the air breeze to circulate effectively in and out of the building and can let the sunlight illuminate the interior of the structure. At the same time, the shadow cast by the panels would also create a shadow based on the motives adding the beauty on the floor. Thus, the carved components perform both functional and aesthetic purposes.
Under the Malay culture,pottery is not solely witnessed as a mere householdutensil. It is perceived as a work ofart, a paradigm of talent, embroidered with aesthetic, legacy, perseverance and religious devotion. The Malay earthen is usually unglazed, with the ornamental designs were carved when the pottery is semi-dried during its construction process.[149]
According to several studies,[150] the native Malay pottery industry has developed indigenously from the period of great antiquity and has since encapsulates a high-level of culture sophistication. It also has been noted that the design features of the Malay pottery suggested the absence of theforeign influence prior to the 19th century, a paradox considering the vast cultural contact between the Malays and the outside world.[150]
Among the renowned traditional Malay pottery includesMambong ofKelantan, moulded from clay and identified with the colour ofterracotta. It is usually assumed the form as cooking utensils. In the west coast, the raven-colouredLabu Sayong ofKuala Kangsar is honoured for gourd-formed jars. There are also several variants ofLabu, includingLabu Tela, Labu Kepala, Labu Gelugor Tela andLabu Gelugor Kepala.[149]
Other forms of Malay traditional pottery are: TheBelanga, commonly in a wide rim and a round base, the pot usually mobilised to cookcurries. It is held that the structure of the earthen would aid the heat to be evenly distributed, correlating to its round base. A smaller version of theBelanga is calledperiok, used forrice-preparation; TheBuyong, commonly defined by a straight collar and a spherical body, oftentime used as a water jar; TheTerenang, the angularTerenang is used as a canister, especially in the coastal Malay regions ofKelantan,Patani andTerengganu; TheBekas Bara, a small container, usually crafted for the use ofincense; TheJambangan, a traditional Malayvase, usually for aesthetic purposes andGeluk, a small water storage.[151]
Malay cuisine is characterised by the extensive use of aromatic spices, coconut milk, fermented ingredients and fresh herbs, resulting in dishes with complex and robust flavour profiles. Representative components of the cuisine includegulai (spiced coconut-based stews),asam pedas (sour and spicy stews),ketupat (compressed rice cakes commonly associated with festive consumption),rendang (slow-cooked spiced meat),sambal (chilli-based condiments),keropok (fish or shrimp crackers), traditionalkuih (bite-sized cakes and sweets),dodol (sweet coconut-based confections) and fermented preparations such asperkasam.
The main characteristic in traditional Malay cuisine is undoubtedly the generous use of spices.Coconut milk is also important in giving the Malay dishes their rich, creamy character. The other foundation isbelacan (shrimp paste), which is used as a base forsambal, a rich sauce or condiment made from belacan,chillies, onions and garlic. Malay cooking also makes plentiful use oflemongrass andgalangal.[153]
Nearly every Malay meal is served with rice, thestaple food in many other East Asian cultures. Although there are various type of dishes in a Malay meal, all are served at once, not in courses. Food is eaten delicately with the fingers of right hand, never with the left which is used for personal ablutions, and Malays rarely use utensils.[154] Because most of Malay people are Muslims, Malay cuisine follows Islamichalal dietary law rigorously. Protein intake are mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, and lamb meat, and also includes poultry and fishes. Pork and any non-halal meats, also alcohol is prohibited and absent from Malay daily diet.
Nasi lemak, rice cooked in richcoconut milk probably is the most popular dish ubiquitous in Malay town and villages. Nasi lemak is considered asMalaysia'snational dish.[155] WhileNasi Minyak andNasi Hujan Panas, rice broiled with ghee and spices is hailed as a ceremonial dish for special occasions, especially during the traditional Malay weddings.
The Malays have diverse kinds of music and dance which are fusions of different cultural influences. Typical genres range from traditional Malay folk dances dramas likeMak Yong to the Arab-influencedZapin dances. Choreographed movements also vary from simple steps and tunes inDikir barat to the complicated moves inJogetGamelan.
Traditional Malay music is basically percussive. Various kinds ofgongs provide the beat for many dances. There are also drums of various sizes, ranging from the largerebana ubi used to punctuate important events to the smalljingled-rebana (frame drum) used as an accompaniment to vocal recitations in religious ceremonies.[156]
Nobat music became part of theRoyal Regalia of Malay courts since the arrival of Islam in the 12th century and only performed in important court ceremonies. Its orchestra includes the sacred and highly revered instruments ofnehara (kettledrums),gendang (double-headed drums),nafiri (trumpet),serunai (oboe), and sometimes a knobbedgong and a pair ofcymbals.[157]
Indian influences are strong in a traditionalshadow play known asWayang Kulit where stories from Hindu epics;Ramayana &Mahabharata form the main repertoire. There are four distinctive types of shadow puppet theatre that can be found in Malay Peninsula;Wayang Gedek,Wayang Purwa,Wayang Melayu andWayang Siam.[158][159][160] Nonetheless, the art and the storytelling ofWayang Purwa andWayang Siam denote a regional influence in fused with the Javanese and Siamese respectively, whileWayang Melayu andWayang Gedek narrated a more autochthonously Malay form and fashion.
The traditional Malay apparel and textile has been continuously morphed since the time of antiquity. Historically, the ancient Malays were chronicled to incorporate various natural materials as a vital source for fabrics, clothing and attire. The common era however, witnessing the early arrivals the merchants from east and west to the harbours of Malay Archipelago, together they bought new luxurious items, including fine cotton and silks. The garments subsequently become a source of high Malay fashion and acquired a cultural role as the binding identity in the archipelago, especially in the peninsula, Sumatra and the coastal areas of Borneo.[164]
In Malay culture, clothes and textiles are revered as symbols of beauty, power and status. Numerous accounts inMalay hikayats stressed the special place occupied by textiles.[165] The Malay handloom industry can be traced its origin since the 13th century when the eastern trade route flourished underSong dynasty. Mentions of locally made textiles as well as the predominance of weaving in theMalay Peninsula were made in various Chinese and Arab accounts.[166] Among well-known Malay textiles areSongket,Batik,Telepok,Limar,Tenun,Kelingkam,Cindai,Pelangi andTekad.
Classical Malay dress varies between different regions, but the most profound traditional dress in modern-day are Baju Kurung (for women) and Baju Melayu (for men), which both recognised as the national dress for Malaysia and Brunei, and also worn by Malay communities in Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Myanmar and Thailand.
The wordBaju Kurung, literary defined as "encase the body" of the wearer is tailored based on the Islamic principles of modesty, decency and humility. The practice is parallel to theJudaeo-Christian religious doctrine, as flaunting theintimate body parts is considered as forbidden in Islam. The interpretation was then absorbed to the Malay way of dressing and cultural perspective, this can be strongly witnessed upon the rule ofMansur Shah of Malacca in the 15th century, the sultan prohibited his female Muslim subjects in the public from wearing only a sarong from the bust downwards. Throughout the ages, The Malay Baju Kurung went into several reincarnation before assuming its current form. Due to the vastness of various Malay kingdoms in thearchipelago, local and distinct forms of the Baju Kurung design patterns can also be witnessed in the region, including Bengkulu, Kedah, Jambi, Johor-Riau, Pahang and Palembang.[164]
The corresponding mode of Baju Kurung for men is known as "Baju Melayu". The upper part of the garment was made with the geometrical design almost similar with Baju Kurung and commonly paired with woven cloth known as the sarong. The pattern of the sarong may possessed a symbol of the person's marital status or the rank in the classical Malay society.[164]
Other common classical Malay attire for men consists of abaju (shirt) ortekua (a type of a long sleeve shirt),baju rompi (vest),kancing (button), a small legcelana (trousers), asarong worn around the waist,capal (sandal), and atanjak ortengkolok (headgear); for the aristocrats, thebaju sikap orbaju layang (a type of coat) andpending (ornamental belt buckle) are also synonymous to be worn as a formal attire. It was also common for apendekar (Malay warrior) to have aKris tucked into the front fold of sarong.
In contrast to Baju Melayu which continued to be worn as ceremonial dress only, Baju Kurung is worn daily throughout the year by a majority of Malay women. Sighting of female civil servants, professional workers and students wearing Baju Kurung is common in Malaysia and Brunei.
Rows of Pelita (oil lamps) lighted duringMalam Tujuh Likur (the 27th night ofRamadhan), the oil lamps are traditionally used to illuminate homes and the streets during the Ramadhan. Seen here inMuar, Johor, Malaysia.
The rise ofIslam managed toredefine theMalay identity by the 15th century. Thus, resulting most of the Malay festivals and celebrations to run parallel with theIslamic calendar, albeit deeply ingrained with a strong sense ofMalay character. The biannualHari Raya (lit "the Great Day") observance ofAildifitri andAidiladha are hailed as the grand celebrations universally across the Malay community. The two holidays are instrumental to commentate two major events and philosophy in the Islamic teaching and beliefs. The former signifies the triumph as a Muslim after a month offasting and patience inRamadan, while the latter is to observe the sacrifice made byIbrahim (Abraham) under the name ofAllah.
TheRaya holidays usually commenced during thehomecoming event known asBalik Kampung orBalik Raya which occurred a few days before the festival. During the Hari Raya, the Malays would celebrated by performing theEid prayers, holding a grand feast and visiting friends, relatives and neighbours. A visit to the grave of the departed loved ones is also essential, as a sign of respect, love and honour.
The coronation ceremony between Tengku Otteman, as theTengku Mahkota (Crown Prince) ofDeli Sultanate,Dutch East Indies; with his wife, Raja Amnah, a member ofPerak Royalty asTengku Puan Indera in 1925
Other major liturgical and religious ceremonies celebrated by the Malays includeRamadhan, a month-long holy month devoted by daytime fasting and various religious activities;Maulidur Rasul, a special grand procession to honour the birth ofMuhammad;Ashura, remembrance ofMuharram where the Malays would solemnly prepared a special dish, known asBubur Ashura;Nisfu Syaaban, the Mid-Sha'ban observance, a special day offasting for forgiveness;Nuzul Quran, the first revelation of theQuran;Israk dan Mikraj, the ascension of Muhammad to the heavens andAwal Muharram, the Islamic New Year; the latter three celebrations are usually observed by holding a specialsunat prayers, religious lectures and Islamic discussions in themosque.
There are also a plethora of domestic regional cultural festivals and social events within different the Malay spheres. The coastal areas were historically known to observed theMandi Safar orPuja Pantai ceremony, a purifying bath during theIslamic month ofSafar, originally emulated from the ancient pre-Islamic Malay holy cleansing rituals, akin to theBelimau tradition before Ramadan; andPesta Menuai, aharvest festival celebrated by the inland and agrarian Malay communities by traditional games, theatre,Joget and other repertoire of dance-play. However, both of the practice is gradually extinct owing from various social and economic revolution engineered in the Malay community in the 20th century. Additionally, many Malays are also known to participate in the imperial celebrations to honour the royal courts of their respective kingdoms.
The Islamic features also strongly embroidered the Malay celebrations in the individual level, a juxtaposition bonded to the spiritualrite of passage as a Muslim. The Malays would usually organisedkenduri, a religious ceremonial banquet to celebrate or to seek blessing for an event. There are several philosophical variations of kenduri, raging fromDoa Selamat (asking for divine favour and protection),Kesyukuran (for thanksgiving and gratitude),Melenggang Perut (ceremonial massage for a mother who is pregnant with her first child),Aqiqah andCukur Jambul (newborn ceremony, for celebrating a new life),Bertindik (the first piercing ceremony for a female child),Khatam (a graduation ceremony, after a child's first full-reading of theQuran),Khatan (circumcision),Kahwin (wedding),Arwah orTahlil (prayers for a deceased person), among few. The event is usually organised by the family and was traditionally aided by the community in a social gathering known asRewang orGotong-royong. During this ceremony, the whole family would be assisted by their neighbours and relatives, delegating various tasks raging from food preparations, venue management, logistic assembly and other technical control. Nevertheless, following the rise ofurbanism in the contemporary Malay community, the practice ofRewang/Gotong-Royong is gradually superseded by hired-caterer services by the family.
Silat and its variants can be found throughout the Malay world: theMalay Peninsula (includingSingapore), theRiau Islands,Sumatra and coastal areas ofBorneo. Archaeological evidence reveals that, by the 6th century, formalised combat arts were being practised in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.[167] The earliest forms of Silat are believed to have been developed and used in the armed forces of the ancient Malay kingdoms ofLangkasuka (2nd century)[168][169] and Srivijaya (7th century).
The influence of the Malay sultanates of Malacca,Johor,Pattani andBrunei has contributed to the spread of this martial art in the Malay Archipelago. Through a complex maze of sea channels and river capillaries that facilitated exchange and trade throughout the region, Silat wound its way into the dense rainforest and up into the mountains. The legendaryLaksamanaHang Tuah of Malacca is one of the most renownedpesilat (Silat practitioners) in history[170] and even considered by some as the father of Malay silat.[171] Since the classical era,Silat Melayu underwent great diversification and formed what is today traditionally recognised as the source of IndonesianPencak Silat and other forms of Silat in Southeast Asia.[172][173]
Apart from Silat,Tomoi is also practised by Malays, mainly in the northern region of the Malay Peninsula. It is a variant ofIndo-Chinese forms ofkickboxing which is believed to have been spread in the Southeast Asian mainland since the time ofFunan Empire (68 CE).
Upon the turn of the 17th century, gold, silver,iron andbrass have all been perfectly moulded to become part and parcel to the Malay society. The era witnessed the works of metal received a critical royal patronage. A multitude of Malay metalworks manifested as evidence of this era, raging from a peculiar Malay dagger known asKeris made of iron, down to the elaborate finejewellery made from gold and silver. For the Malay nobles during this period, the works of pending (ornamentalBelt buckle embellished withprecious stones),keronsang (brooch) andcucuk sanggul (hairpins) were staged to become among the most sought item of fashion. The era also hosted a number of other prominent items in the Malay regalia cast in gold, including ceremonial box,Tepak sirih (Betel container) and parts of Keris. The art of working gold was predominantly done byrepoussé andgranulation techniques, in which the traditional methods can still be witnessed today. In the contemporary era, Malay gold jewels are mainly found in the form of anklets, bracelets, rings, necklaces, pendants and earrings.[174][175]
For the Malay silverware, the works of silver are fairly known for its sophisticated and fine designs. It is usually crafted by repousse,filigree andniello techniques. The common traditional Malay items usually made of silver include pillow ends, belt buckles, matt corners, stoppers for water vessels, Keris sheaths and tobacco boxes. TheAwan Larat (cloud patterns) andKerawang (Vegetal motives) are among the popular designs for Malay decorative silver pillow ends and tobacco boxes.[174]
The usage of brassware transcends a plethora of classical Malay social classes, being used by the members of nobility and commoners alike. The popularity of brassware is heavily contributed due to its durability, quality and affordability to all. The brassware can be narrowed into two distinctions, yellow brass for functional items and white fordecorative purposes. It is often meticulously hammered and craved with various decorative designs inreligious and floral motives. The usage of brass however, is best known forTepak Sireh, a ceremonial tray for betel quid and for constructing certain musical instruments such asGongs for the classical MalayGamelan orchestra. Additionally, other prominent traditional Malay items made from metal includes flower vases, perfume sprinkles, serving trays, cooking pots, kettle and incense burners.[174][175]
TheKeris is one of the most revered items of Malay weaponry. Originally developed by theJavanese down south, the spread of the kris to other nations such as Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines, was credited to the growing influence of theMajapahit Empire in Java around the year 1492.[176] By the time ofMalacca in the 15th century, the evolution of the Malay Keris was perfected and possession of a Keris came to be regarded as in integral part of Malay culture, becoming a philosophical symbol, juxtapositioned in prestige, craftsmanship, masculinity and honour.[177][178][179]
During the classical era, a Malay man was not seen without a Keris outside of his house. The absence of a Keris on a man was frowned upon, perceived as if he were parading naked to the public. Traditionally, a man of Malay extraction would own three types of Keris:Keris Pusaka (the Dynasty Keris, inherited from one generation to another),Keris Pangkat (the Status Keris, awarded in right of his position in Malay society) andKeris Perjuangan Dirinya (the Struggle Keris, literally defined as his personal Keris). There are many strict rules, regulations and taboos to be adhered to in owning a Keris.[179] The blade of a Kris is usually coated with poisonous arsenic, thus crafting an excruciatingly lethal blade for its prey.[178] Traditionally, each Keris is also regarded as possessing aspirit, known assemangat. Special rituals were to be conducted to nurture, preserve and guard the "soul" of the weapon.[179] The spiritual approach is usually held everyMalam Jumaat (Thursday night), with the blade is being purified withlime and smoked withincense, dedicated prayers and devoted mantras would be also recited upon to complement the mystic ritual.[180]
The Malays and Javanese are abided by contrasting philosophicalvalues pertaining to Keris-wearing. Traditionally, a Malay would embedded his Keris from the front, an honour that the weapon is more paramount compared to the wearer and a constant reminder that one is always equipped to combat the nemesis. The Javanese however, adhered to the principle that he should be more cautious and the Keris may solely be exercised during the time of need, thus cladding their Keris from behind. The Javanese also believed that by carrying their weapon that position, it would confuse the enemy.[179]
Paradoxically, both groups shared a similar ideology addressing thehilt of the Keris. If the hilt faced up front, it serves as a testament that the man is prepared for a fight. Nevertheless, if the hilt is turned behind, it is an oath that the person is embracing for areconciliation.[179]
There are also a plethora of other forms of weaponry in the Malay arsenal, all were nevertheless equally revered in a correlating manner as the Keris. The Malays would classified the traditional weapons under 7 different structures:Tuju ("Direct", the large and heavy artillery, including the Malaycannons ofMeriam,Ekor Lotong,Lela andRentaka),Bidik ("Gun", a weapon with metal tube propelled by anammunition, with the Malay forms ofTerakor andIstingar),Setubuh ("A body", weapon in the similar dimension of ahuman body, referred to the Malayspears ofTongkat Panjang andLembing),Selengan ("An arm", a largesabre from the length of the shoulders to the tips of the fingers, constituting the Malay sabre ofPedang andSundang),Setangan ("A hand", a sword with the diameter measured from the elbow to the 3 fingers, includingBadik Panjang andTekpi),Sepegang ("A hold", smaller than theSetangan, adagger withKeris andBadik in the category) andSegenggam ("A grab", the smallest in the category, the hand-sizedblade, includingLawi Ayam,Kerambit,Kuku Macan andKapak Binjai).[181] Other items in the traditional Malay weaponry includessumpit (Blowpipe) andBusur dan Panah (Bow and Arrow), which are distinct from the seven class of armaments. Additionally, the Malays also would deployZirah, a type ofBaju Besi (armour) andPerisai (shield) as defence mechanisms during thearmed conflict.
AWau-maker's workshop inKelantan, Malaysia. This peculiar type of kite can be found in the northeast coast of the Malay Peninsula.
Traditional Malay games usually require craft skills and manual dexterity and can be traced their origins since the days of Malacca Sultanate.Sepak Raga andkite flying are among traditional games that were mentioned in theMalay Annals being played by nobilities and royalties of the Malay sultanate.[182][183][184]
Sepak Raga is one of the most popular Malay games and has been played for centuries. Traditionally, Sepak raga was played in circle by kicking and keeps aloft the rattan ball using any part of the body except the arms and hands. It is now recognised asMalaysia's national sport[185][186] and played in the international sporting events such asAsian Games andSoutheast Asian Games.
Other popular game isGasing spinning which usually played after theharvest season. A great skill ofcraftsmanship is required to produce the most competitiveGasing (top), some of which spin for two hours at a time.[187]
Possibly the most popular Malay games is theWau (a unique kind of kite from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula) or kite flying. Wau-flying competitions take place with judges awarding points for craftsmanship (Wau are beautiful, colourful objects set on bamboo frames), sound (allMalay kites are designed to create a specific sound as they are buffeted about in the wind) and altitude.[187]
The Malays also have a variant ofMancala board game known asCongkak. The game is played by moving stones, marbles, beads or shells around a wooden board consisting of twelve or more holes. Mancala is acknowledged as the oldest game in the world and can be traced its origin sinceAncient Egypt. As the game dispersed around the globe, every culture has invented its own variation including the Malays.[188]
Malay personal names are complex, reflecting the hierarchical nature of the society, and titles are considered important. Naming has undergone tremendous change, evolving with the times to reflect the different influences that the Malays been subjected to over the ages. Although some Malay names still retain parts of their indigenousMalay andSanskrit influences, as Muslims, Malays have long favouredArabic names as marks of their religion.
Malay names arepatronymic and can consiste of up to four parts; a title, a given name, the family name, and a description of the individual's male parentage. Some given names and father's names can be composed of double names and even triple names, thereby generating a longer name. For example, one Malaysian national footballer has the full nameMohd Zaquan Adha Abdul Radzak, where 'Mohd Zaquan Adha' is his triple given name and 'Abdul Radzak' is his father's double given name.
The realm of Malays is depicted in green and other related sub-ethnic groups are rendered in darker or lighter green.
Although only constituting 3.4% of the total population, ethnic Malays are one of the most widely distributed ethnicities in Indonesia. As shown on the map, outside theIndonesian Archipelago, the Malay people inhabit theMalay Peninsula, forming the dominant ethnic group in Peninsular Malaysia and a significant minority inSingapore, Thailand and southern Myanmar. The corridor of Bornean Malay territories begins north from southwesternSabah, continues with the country ofBrunei Darussalam, coastalSarawak and continues down toKalimantan.[189]
^The definition of the Malay ethnicity can be different in every country, especially between those of Malaysia and Singapore, which are nearly the same, and that of Indonesia.
^For definition of Malays in Malaysia, seeArticle 160
^This number only provides the ethnic group population that lies under the term "Malay" (Melayu) according to the Indonesian government criterion, namely Melayu Asahan, Melayu Deli, Melayu Riau, Melayu Langkat, Melayu Palembang, Asahan, Melayu, Melayu Lahat, and Melayu Semendo in some part of Sumatra.
^This refers to persons of Malay or Indonesian origin, suchasJavanese,Boyanese,Bugis, etc.
^Lowenberg, Peter (1988). "Malay in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore: Three Faces of a National Language". InCoulmas, Florian (ed.).With Forked Tongues: What are National Languages Good For?. Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma. p. 146-79.ISBN978-0-89720-084-4.
^Reid, Anthony (October 2001). "Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities".Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.32 (3):295–313.doi:10.1017/S0022463401000157.PMID19192500.
^Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay, eds. (2009).Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
^Muhlis, Buyung S. (26 February 2025)."Di Ampenan, Burung Saja Berbahasa Melayu".mataramradio.com (in Indonesian). Mataram Radio. Archived from the original on 5 July 2025. Retrieved5 July 2025.
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