Initially founded by theirmetropoleis (mother cities), the settlements evolved into independent and powerful Greekcity-states (poleis). The settlers brought with themHellenic civilization, which over time developed distinct local forms due to both their distance from Greece and the influence of the indigenous peoples of southern Italy.[3] This interaction left a lasting imprint on Italy, including onRoman culture. The Greek settlers also influenced native groups such as theSicels and theOenotrians, many of whom adopted Greek culture and becameHellenized. In areas like architecture and urban planning, the colonies sometimes surpassed the achievements of the motherland.[4] The ancient inhabitants of Magna Graecia are referred to asItaliotes andSiceliotes.
Ruins of several cities from Magna Graecia remain visible today, including Neapolis ("New City", nowNaples), Syrakousai (Syracuse), Akragas (Agrigento), Taras (Taranto), Rhegion (Reggio Calabria), and Kroton (Crotone). The most populous city wasSybaris (nowSibari), with an estimated population of between 300,000 and 500,000, from 600 to 510 BC.[1]
Governments in these city-states were typicallyaristocratic,[5] and the cities often engaged in warfare with one another.[6] Their independence came to an end during theSecond Punic War, when they were annexed by theRoman Republic in 205 BC.[7]
Despite the political changes, cultural life in Magna Graecia flourished. Greek art, literature, and philosophy had a decisive influence on the region, especially in cities like Taras.[5]South Italian Greek pottery, particularly from the 4th century BC, is a notable cultural contribution. Settlers from Magna Graecia also achieved great success in theAncient Olympic Games—athletes fromCrotone alone won 18 titles over 25 Olympiads.[8]
Although most Greek inhabitants of Magna Graecia were fullyLatinized during theMiddle Ages,[9] traces of Greek language and culture persisted. TheGriko people ofCalabria (Bovesia) andSalento (Grecìa Salentina) still maintain aspects of their Greek heritage, including theGriko language.[10] This language is the last living trace of the once-vibrant Greek presence in Magna Graecia.[11]
Ancient authors use "Magna Graecia" to mean different parts of southern Italy,[15][16][17] including or excluding Sicily,Strabo andLivy being the most prominent advocates of the wider definitions.[18]Strabo used the term to refer to the territory that had been conquered by the Greeks.[19][20]
There are various hypotheses on the origin of the nameMegálē Hellás. The term could be explained by the prosperity and cultural and economic splendour of the region (6th–5th century BC); notably by the Achaeans of the city ofKroton, to refer to the network of colonies they founded or controlled between the end of the 6th and mid-5th centuries at the time of thePythagoreans.[21]
There were several reasons for the Greeks to establish overseas colonies; demographic crises (famine, overcrowding, etc.),stasis, a developing need for new commercial outlets and ports, and expulsion from their homeland after wars.
During theArchaic period, the Greekpopulation grew beyond the capacity of the limitedarable land of Greece proper, resulting in thelarge-scale establishment of colonies elsewhere: according to one estimate, the population of the widening area of Greek settlement increased roughly tenfold from 800 BC to 400 BC, from 800,000 to as many as7+1⁄2-10 million.[22] This was not simply for trade, but also to found settlements. TheseGreek colonies were not, as Roman colonies were, dependent on their mother-city, but were independent city-states in their own right.[23]
Greek colonies and their metropolitan cities depicted with red labels, whilePhoenician colonies are depicted with yellow labels (4th century BC)
Another reason was the strong economic growth with the consequent overpopulation of the motherland.[5] The terrain that some of these Greek city-states were in could not support a large city. Politics was also the reason as refugees from Greek city-states tended to settle away from these cities in the colonies.[24]
Greeks settled outside of Greece in two distinct ways. The first was in permanent settlements founded by the Greeks, which formed as independent poleis. The second form was in what historians refer to asemporia; trading posts which were occupied by both Greeks and non-Greeks and which were primarily concerned with the manufacture and sale of goods. Examples of this latter type of settlement are found atAl Mina in the east andPithekoussai in the west.[25]
From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions.
According toStrabo'sGeographica, the colonisation of Magna Graecia had already begun by the time of theTrojan War and lasted for several centuries.[26]
Greeks began to settle in southern Italy in the 8th century BC.[20] Their first great migratory wave was by theEuboeans aimed at the Gulf of Naples (Pithecusae,Cumae) and the Strait of Messina (Zancle,Rhegium).[27] Pithecusae on the island ofIschia is considered the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, and Cumae their first colony on the mainland of Italy.
Remains of some of these Greek colonies can be seen today, such as those of Neapolis ('new city', nowNaples), Syracusae (Syracuse), Akragas (Agrigento), Taras (Taranto), and Rhegion (Reggio Calabria).
Over time, due to overpopulation and other political and commercial reasons, the new cities expanded their presence in Italy by founding other Greek cities; effectively expanding the Greek civilisation to the whole territory known today as Magna Graecia.[30]
An intense colonisation program was undertaken bySyracuse,[32] at the time of the tyranny ofDionysius I of Syracuse, around 387–385 BC. This phenomenon affected the entireAdriatic coast, and in particular led to the foundation in Italy ofAncón (nowAncona) andAdria; in theDalmatian coast he saw the foundation of Issa (currentVis), Pharos (Stari Grad), Dimos (Hvar); Lissos (nowLezhë) was founded on theAlbanian coast. Issa in turn then founded Tragurium (nowTrogir), Melaina Corcyra (nowKorčula) and Epetium (nowStobreč, a suburb ofSplit).
At the beginning of the 6th century BC, all the main cities of Magna Graecia on the Ionian Sea had achieved a high economic and cultural development, which shifted their interests towards expansion of their territory by waging war on neighbouring cities. The 6th century was therefore characterised by great clashes between the colonies. Some of the clashes that established the new balance and the new relationships of force were theBattle of the Sagra river (the clash between Locri Epizefiri and Kroton), the destruction ofSiris (by Sybaris and Metapontum), and the clash between Kroton and Sybaris (which ended with the destruction of the latter).[34]
As with all the events of this period precise dates are unknown, but the destruction of Sybaris may have occurred around 510 BC, while the two other clashes are placed around 580-560 BC, with the destruction of Siris before theBattle of the Sagra.
Roman expansion in Italy from 500 BC to 218 BCItalian cities and tribes who allied with Hannibal, c. 213 BC (blue)
The first Greek city to be absorbed into theRoman Republic was Neàpolis in 327BC.[35]
At the beginning of the 3rd century, Rome was a great power but had not yet entered into conflict with most of Magna Graecia, which had been allies of the Samnites. However, the needs of the Roman populace determined their need for territorial expansion towards the south.[36] As the Greek cities of southern Italy came under threat from theBruttii andLucanians from the end of the 4th century BC, they asked for help from Rome, which exploited this opportunity by sending military garrisons in the 280s BC.[37]
Following Rome's victory overTaras after thePyrrhic War in 272BC, most of the cities of southern Italy were linked to Rome with pacts and treaties (foedera) which sanctioned a sort of indirect control.[38]
Sicily was conquered by Rome during theFirst Punic War. Only Syracuse remained independent until 212 because its kingHiero II was a devoted ally of the Romans. His grandsonHieronymus however allied withHannibal, which prompted the Romans tobesiege the city, which fell in 212BC.
After the second Punic War, Rome pursued an unprecedented program of reorganisation in the rest of Magna Graecia, where many of the cities were annexed to theRoman Republic in 205BC, as a consequence of their defection to Hannibal.[7] Roman colonies (civium romanorum) were the main element of the new territorial control plan starting from thelex Atinia of 197BC. In 194BC, garrisons of 300 Roman veterans were implanted inVolturnum,Liternum,Puteoli,Salernum andBuxentum, and toSipontum on the Adriatic. This model was replicated in the territory of the Brettii; 194BC saw the foundation of the Roman colonies ofKroton andTempsa, followed by the Latin colonies ofCopia (193BC) and Valentia (192BC).[39]
The social, linguistic and administrative changes arising from the Roman conquest only took root in this region by the 1st century AD, while Greek culture remained strong and was actively cultivated as shown by epigraphic evidence.[40]
Doric columns from the Temple of Poseidon in Taras (nowTaranto); legacy of its Greek origins
During theEarly Middle Ages, following the disastrousGothic War, new waves ofByzantine Christian Greeks fleeing theSlavic invasion ofPeloponnese settled in Calabria, further strengthened the Hellenic element in the region.[41] The iconoclast emperorLeo III appropriated lands that had been granted to the Papacy in southern Italy and the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire continued to govern the area in the form of theCatapanate of Italy (965 -1071) through the Middle Ages, well after northern Italy fell to the Lombards.[42]
At the time of theNormans' late medieval conquest of southern Italy and Sicily (in the late 12th century), theSalento peninsula (the "heel" of Italy), up to one-third of Sicily (concentrated in theVal Demone), and much of Calabria and Lucania were still largely Greek-speaking. Some regions of southern Italy experienced demographic shifts as Greeks began to migrate northwards in significant numbers from regions further south; one such region wasCilento, which came to have a Greek-speaking majority.[43][44][45] At this time the language had evolved into medieval Greek, also known asByzantine Greek, and its speakers were known asByzantine Greeks. The resultant fusion of local Byzantine Greek culture with Norman and Arab culture (from the Arab occupation of Sicily) gave rise toNorman-Arab-Byzantine culture in Sicily.
This is a list of the 22poleis ("city-states") in Italy, according toMogens Herman Hansen.[46] It does not list all the Hellenic settlements, only those organised around apolis structure.
This is a list of the 46poleis ("city-states") in Sicily, according to Mogens Herman Hansen.[47] It does not list all the Hellenic settlements, only those organised around apolis structure.
The administrative organisation of Magna Graecia was inherited from the Hellenic poleis, taking up the concept of "city-states" administered by thearistocracy.[5] The cities of Magna Graecia were independent like the Greekpoleis of the motherland,[49] and had an army and a military fleet.[50][51][52] There were also cases of tyranny as in Syracuse, governed by the tyrantDionysius, who fought the Carthaginians until his death.[49][53]
In the cities of Magna Graecia, trade, agriculture and crafts developed. Initially oriented to the indigenous Italic populations, the trade was immediately an excellent channel of exchange with the Greeks of the motherland, even if today it is difficult to establish precisely the type of goods traded and the volume of these exchanges.[30]
The Greek colonists of Magna Graecia elaborated a civilization,[3] which had peculiar characteristics, due to the distance from the motherland and the influence of the indigenous peoples of southern Italy.[3] From the motherland Greece, art, literature and philosophy decisively influenced the life of the colonies. In Magna Graecia much impetus was given to culture, especially in some cities, such as Taras (nowTaranto).[5]Pythagoras moved to Crotone where he foundedhis school in 530 BC. Among others,Aeschylus,Herodotus,Xenophanes andPlato visited Magna Graecia.
A remnant of Greek influence can be found in the survival of the Greek language in some villages of the above-mentioned Salento peninsula (the "heel" of Italy). This living dialect of Greek, known locally asGriko, is found in the Italian regions ofCalabria andApulia.Griko is considered by linguists to be a descendant ofByzantine Greek, which had been the majority language of Salento through the Middle Ages, combining also some ancientDoric and localromance elements. There is a richoral tradition and Grikofolklore, limited now but once numerous, to around 30,000 people, most of them having abandoned their language in favour of Italian. Some scholars, such asGerhard Rohlfs, argue that the origins of Griko may ultimately be traced to the colonies of Magna Graecia.[54]
Magna Graecia, in some fields such as architecture and urban planning, sometimes surpassed the mother country and the other Greek colonies.[4] In Magna Graecia, as well as in the other Greek colonies, theDoric style enriched with showy decorations was adopted as the dominant architectural style. In Magna Graecia, in particular, a Doric style influenced by theIonic one was also used, especially in Sicily in the Achaean colonies.[4] In Magna Graecia, limestone was used as a building material due to the difficulty in finding other materials. The Doric style in Magna Graecia reached its apogee, surpassing that of the motherland and the other Greek colonies.[4]
Regarding urban planning, the cities of Magna Graecia, as well as many cities of Greek colonies in other regions, were more orderly and rational in the distribution of spaces than those of the mother country, making the urban fabric more practical. The first examples of urbanistically more rational Greek cities belonged to Magna Graecia, in this caseTaranto,Metapontum andMegara Hyblaea.[4] Characteristic of this new urban concept, which later spread also in the motherland toRhodes andMiletus, was a checkerboard road network.[4]
In Magna Graecia painting and sculpture also reached a notable level of quality.[55][56] In Magna Graecia there were examples of excellence in sculpture, coroplastics and bronzes.[55] As for vase painting, many famous Athenian potters moved to Magna Graecia creating works influenced by the culture of the place, making their paintings peculiar and different from those of the motherland,[56] giving rise to theSouth Italian ancient Greek pottery. Also noteworthy are the mosaics, the goldsmith's art and wall painting.[57][58]
Only fragments of original dramaturgical works are left, but the tragedies of the three great giantsAeschylus,Sophocles andEuripides and the comedies ofAristophanes are known.[60]
Some famous playwrights in the Greek language came directly from Magna Graecia. Others, such as Aeschylus andEpicharmus, worked for a long time in Sicily. Epicharmus can be considered Syracusan in all respects, having worked all his life with thetyrants of Syracuse. His comedy preceded that of the more famous Aristophanes by staging the gods for the first time in comedy. While Aeschylus, after a long stay in the Sicilian colonies, died in Sicily in the colony ofGela in 456 BC. Epicarmus andPhormis, both of 6th century BC, are the basis, forAristotle, of the invention of the Greek comedy, as he says in his book onPoetics:[61]
As for the composition of the stories (Epicharmus and Phormis) it came in the beginning from Sicily
— Aristotle,Poetics
Other native dramatic authors of Magna Graecia, in addition to the Syracusan Phormis mentioned, areAchaeus of Syracuse,Apollodorus of Gela,Philemon of Syracuse and his son Philemon the younger. From Calabria, precisely from the colony ofThurii, came the playwrightAlexis. WhileRhinthon, although Sicilian from Syracuse, worked almost exclusively for the colony ofTaranto.[62]
The colonists of Magna Graecia were very fond of the Hellenic games where they could prove to the Greeks that they belonged to the same place of origin, their physical strength and skills in the games were also played by their ancestors dozens of generations earlier. And for this reason the greatest sovereigns demanded that teams be trained to be sent to Greece.[63]
Sport was therefore a channel of communication with the Hellenic peninsula, a means by which the colonies of Magna Graecia showed themselves to the rest of the Hellenic world. The settlers of Magna Graecia had great success in sporting competitions in their homeland.Crotone's athletes won 18 titles in 25 Olympics.[8]
8th century BC: the first historical colony of Magna Graecia was that of Pithekoussai (current island ofIschia) founded in the 8th century BC by settlers fromChalcis andEretria inEuboea. Probably, the island settlement of Pithekoussai was only a commercial establishment where the Greeks dealt with other peoples, especially with the Phoenician merchants, even if the issue is controversial.[64]
720 BC: the first Greek colony in mainland Italy,Kyme, is founded.[65]
7th–6th century BC: maximum splendor ofSibari.[30]
6th–3rd century BC: minting of coins by the cities of Magna Graecia.[21]
6th–5th century BC: maximum splendour of Magna Graecia due to the Pythagorean reforms and institutions.[30]
510 BC:Sibari was defeated byCrotone whose troops were commanded by the famous athleteMilo of Croton. The city of Sibari was destroyed and its population was condemned to exile.[66]
474 BC: The fleet led byHiero I, tyrant of Syracuse, assisted Kyme threatened by theEtruscans. This victory marked the end of the Etruscan extension inCampania.[67]
459–454 BC: after an internal civil war inCrotone, the cities of Magna Graecia once linked to it, dissolve the bond of subjection.[30]
444–443 BC: foundation ofThourioi. An Athenian expedition, officially Panhellenic because it was made up of Greeks from the islands of the Aegean Sea, founded the city of Thourioi. In reality, the cities of the Aegean Sea were part of theDelian League, a military league under the rule of Athens. The city of Thourioi hosted important people such asHerodotus,Protagoras,Hippodamus of Miletus andLysias.[68]
415–413 BC: TheSicilian Expedition occurred. It was anAthenian military expedition toSicily, which took place from 415 to 413 BC, during thePeloponnesian War, betweenAthens on one side andSparta,Syracuse andCorinth on the other. The expedition ended in a devastating defeat for the Athenian forces, severely impacting Athens. After the first Athenian victories, which put the Syracusan army in serious difficulty, the tide of the war was turned upside-down due to the Spartan reinforcements under the command ofGylippus. The defeat of the Athenian army led to the imprisonment of its soldiers in the Syracusan latomies, where they were forced to live in hardship and suffering until their death; few were the survivors who managed to return to their homeland. The failure of the expedition marked the beginning of the military and political decline of Athens, followed by thearistocratic coup d'état of 411 BC; it also marked Athens' definitive defeat in thePeloponnesian War (404 BC).Thucydides, an Athenian historian, dedicates two books of his workHistory of the Peloponnesian War to the Athenian expedition, to underline the magnitude and exceptionality of the event.[69] Thus he began "a new work, a work on Sicily"[70] which became the background of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). TheParallel Lives ofPlutarch (in particular theLife of Nicias) and theBibliotheca historica ofDiodorus Siculus are other important sources on the expedition to Sicily.[71]
282–272 BC:Taranto was conquered by the Romans despite the intervention ofPyrrhus (Pyrrhic War in Italy).
264–241 BC:First Punic War, Rome takes control of Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse, which becomes Rome's ally.
215–205 BC: during theSecond Punic War Syracuse and then Taranto sided with Carthage. The two cities were conquered by the Romans in 211 after a three-year siege. These events put an end to the independence of all the cities of Magna Graecia, which were annexed to theRoman Republic in 205 BC.[7]
Map showing the areas where theGriko language is still spoken (Bovesia andGrecìa Salentina); the last living trace of the Greek elements that once formed Magna Graecia.[11]
Greek nobles started taking refuge in Italy following theFall of Constantinople in 1453.[72] Greeks immigrated once again to the region in the 16th and 17th centuries in reaction to the conquest of thePeloponnese by theOttoman Empire. Especially after the end of theSiege of Coron (1534), large numbers of Greeks took refuge in the areas of Calabria, Salento and Sicily. Greeks fromCoroni, the so-called Coronians, were nobles, who brought with them substantial movable property.[73]
Other Greeks who moved to Italy came from theMani Peninsula of the Peloponnese. TheManiots (their name originating from the Greek wordmania)[74] were known for their proud military traditions and for their bloodyvendettas, many of which continue today.[75] Another group of Maniot Greeks moved toCorsica in the 17th century under the protection of theRepublic of Genoa.[76]
Although many of the Greek inhabitants of Magna Graecia were entirelyLatinized during theMiddle Ages,[9] pockets of Greek culture and language remained and have survived to the present day. One example is theGriko people inCalabria (Bovesia) andSalento (Grecìa Salentina), some of whom still maintain their Greek language (Griko language) and customs.[10] The Griko language is the last living trace of the Greek elements that once formed Magna Graecia.[11] Their working practices have been passed down through generations through storytelling and allowing the observation of work.[77] TheItalian parliament recognizes the Griko people as an ethnolinguistic minority under the official name ofMinoranze linguistiche Grike dell'Etnia Griko-Calabrese e Salentina.[78]
Messina in Sicily is home to a smallGreek-speaking minority, which arrived from thePeloponnese between 1533 and 1534 when fleeing the expansion of theOttoman Empire. They were officially recognised in 2012.[79]
UNESCO World Heritage Sites related to Magna Graecia
TheValle dei Templi, or Valley of the Temples, is anarchaeological site inAgrigento (ancient GreekAkragas),Sicily. It is one of the most outstanding examples of ancient Greek art and architecture of Magna Graecia.[80] The term "valley" is a misnomer, the site is located on a ridge outside the town of Agrigento.
Since 1997, the entire area has been included in theUNESCO World Heritage List. The archaeological and landscape park of the Valle dei Templi, with its 1,300 hectares, is the largest archaeological park in Europe and the Mediterranean basin.[81]
The Valley includes remains of seven temples, all inDoric style. The ascription of the names, apart from that of theOlympeion, is a mere tradition established in Renaissance times. The temples are:
Temple of Concordia, whose name comes from a Latin inscription found nearby, and which was built in the 5th century BC. Turned into a church in the 6th century AD, it is now one of the best preserved in the Valley.
Temple of Heracles, who was one of the most venerated deities in the ancientAkragas. It is the most ancient in the Valley: destroyed by an earthquake, it consists today of only eight columns.
Temple of Olympian Zeus, built in 480 BC to celebrate the city-state's victory over Carthage. It is characterized by the use of large-scaleatlases.
Temple ofCastor and Pollux. Despite its remains including only four columns, it is now the symbol of modern Agrigento.
Temple ofHephaestus (Vulcan), also dating from the 5th century BC. It is thought to have been one of the most imposing constructions in the valley; it is now however one of the most eroded.
Temple ofAsclepius, located far from the ancient town's walls; it was the goal of pilgrims seeking cures for illness.
The Valley is also home to the so-called Tomb ofTheron, a largetuff monument of pyramidal shape; scholars suppose it was built to commemorate the Romans killed in theSecond Punic War.
Much of the most celebrated features of thePoseidonia site today are the three large temples in the Archaic version of the GreekDoric order, dating from about 550 to 450 BC. All are typical of the period,[c] with massive colonnades having a very pronouncedentasis (widening as they go down), and very wide capitals resembling upturned mushrooms. Above the columns, only thesecond Temple of Hera retains most of itsentablature, the other two having only thearchitrave in place. These were dedicated toHera andAthena (Juno andMinerva to the Romans), although previously they often have been identified otherwise, following eighteenth-century arguments. The two temples of Hera are right next to each other, while the Temple of Athena is on the other side of the town centre. There were other temples, both Greek and Roman, which are far less well preserved.
Remains ofElea walls, with traces of one gate and several towers, of a total length of over three miles, still exist, and belong to three different periods, in all of which the crystalline limestone of the locality is used. Bricks were also employed in later times; their form is peculiar to this place, each having two rectangular channels on one side, and being about 1.5 inches square, with a thickness of nearly 4 inches They all bear Greek brick-stamps. There are some remains of cisterns on the site, and, various other traces of buildings.[83]
Syracuse was founded in 733 BC by Greek settlers fromCorinth andTenea, led by theoecist (colonizer)Archias. There are many attested variants of the name of the city includingΣυράκουσαιSyrakousai,ΣυράκοσαιSyrakosai andΣυρακώSyrakō. In the modern day, the city is listed byUNESCO as aWorld Heritage Site along with theNecropolis of Pantalica.
The buildings of Syracuse from the Greek period are:
The city walls
TheTemple of Apollo, at Piazza Emanuele Pancali, adapted to a church in Byzantine times and to a mosque under Arab rule.
TheGreek Theatre of Syracuse, whosecavea is one of the largest ever built by the ancient Greeks: it has 67 rows, divided into nine sections with eight aisles. Only traces of the scene and the orchestra remain. The edifice (still used today) was modified by the Romans, who adapted it to their different style of spectacles, including circus games. Near the theatre are thelatomìe, stone quarries, also used as prisons in ancient times. The most famouslatomìa is theOrecchio di Dionisio ("Ear of Dionysius").
The Tomb of Archimede, in the Grotticelli Necropolis. Decorated with two Doric columns.
The Temple of OlympianZeus, about 3 kilometres (2 miles) outside the city, built around the 6th century BC.
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^Kathryn Lomas, Aspects of the Relationship between Rome and the Greek Cities of Southern Italy and Campania during the Republic and Early Empire, Thesis L3473, Newcastle University, 1989http://theses.ncl.ac.uk/jspui/handle/10443/744 p. 9-10
^Calderon, S. "La Conquista Romana di Magna Grecia. " ACTH 15,1975, 30-81
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^STEFANIA DE VIDO 'Capitani coraggiosi'. Gli Eubei nel Mediterraneo C. Bearzot, F. Landucci, in Tra il mare e il continente: l'isola d'Eubea (2013) ISBN 978-88-343-2634-3
^Braccesi, Lorenzo (1979).Grecità adriatica. Un capitolo della colonizzazione greca in Occidente (in Italian) (2nd ed.). Pàtron. p. 450.ISBN978-88-555-0935-0.
^Musti, Domenico (1990). "La spinta verso il Sud: espansione romana e rapporti "internazionali"". Storia di Roma. Vol. I. P 536. Turin: Einaudi. ISBN 978-88-06-11741-2
^Kathryn Lomas, Aspects of the Relationship between Rome and the Greek Cities of Southern Italy and Campania during the Republic and Early Empire, Thesis L3473, Newcastle University, 1989http://theses.ncl.ac.uk/jspui/handle/10443/744
^Brown, T. S. (1979). "The Church of Ravenna and the Imperial Administration in the Seventh Century".The English Historical Review.94 (370): 5.JSTOR567155.
^Loud, G. A. (2007).The Latin Church in Norman Italy. Cambridge University Press. p. 494.ISBN978-0-521-25551-6.At the end of the twelfth century... While in Apulia Greeks were in a majority – and indeed present in any numbers at all – only in the Salento peninsula in the extreme south, at the time of the conquest they had an overwhelming preponderance in Lucania and central and southern Calabria, as well as comprising anything up to a third of the population of Sicily, concentrated especially in the north-east of the island, the Val Demone.
^Oldfield, Paul (2014).Sanctity and Pilgrimage in Medieval Southern Italy, 1000–1200. Cambridge University Press. p. 13.ISBN978-1-107-00028-5.However, the Byzantine revival of the tenth century generated a concomitant process Hellenization, while Muslim raids in southern Calabria, and instability in Sicily, may also have displaced Greek Christians further north on the mainland. Consequently, zones in northern Calabria, Lucania and central Apulia which were reintegrated into Byzantine control also experienced demographic shifts and the increasing establishment of immigrant Greek communities. These zones also acted as springboards for Greek migration further north, into regions such as the Cilento and areas around Salerno, which had never been under Byzantine control.
^Kleinhenz, Christopher (2004).Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia, Volume 1. Routledge. pp. 444–445.ISBN978-0-415-93930-0.In Lucania (northern Calabria, Basilicata, and southernmost portion of today's Campania)... From the late ninth century into the eleventh, Greek-speaking populations and Byzantine temporal power advanced, in stages but by no means always in tandem, out of southern Calabria and the lower Salentine peninsula across Lucania and through much of Apulia as well. By the early eleventh century, Greek settlement had radiated northward and had reached the interior of the Cilento, deep in Salernitan territory. Parts of the central and northwestern Salento, recovered early, [and] came to have a Greek majority through immigration, as did parts of Lucania.
^Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis, pp. 249–320.
^Hansen & Nielsen (eds.),Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis, pp. 189–248.
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