The indigenouslanguages of Malaysia belong to theMon-Khmer andMalayo-Polynesian families. The national, or official, language isMalay which is the mother tongue of the majorityMalay ethnic group. The main ethnic groups within Malaysia are theBumiputera (which consist ofMalays,Orang Asli, and, natives ofEast Malaysia),Arab Malaysians,Malaysian Chinese andMalaysian Indians, with many other ethnic groups represented in smaller numbers, each with their own languages. The largest native languages spoken inEast Malaysia are theIban,Dusunic, andKadazan languages.English is widely understood and spoken within the urban areas of the country; the English language is a compulsory subject inprimary andsecondary education. It is also the mainmedium of instruction within most private colleges and private universities. English may take precedence over Malay in certain official contexts as provided for by the National Language Act, especially in the states of Sabah and Sarawak, where it may be the official working language. Furthermore, thelaw of Malaysia is commonly taught and read in English,[1] as the unwritten laws of Malaysia continue to be partially derived from pre-1957English common law, which is a legacy ofpast British colonisation of the constituents forming Malaysia. In addition, authoritative versions ofconstitutional law andstatutory law (written laws of Malaysia) are continuously available in both Malay and English.[1]
Malaysia contains speakers of 137 living languages,[2] 41 of which are found in Peninsular Malaysia.[3] The government provides schooling at theprimary level in each of the three major languages, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. Within Malay and Tamil there are a number of dialectal differences.[4] There are a number of Chinese languages native to the ethnic Han Chinese who originated from Southern China, which include Yue, Min and Hakka Chinese.
The official language of Malaysia is the "Malay language"[5] (Bahasa Melayu) which is sometimes interchangeable with "Malaysian language" (Bahasa Malaysia).[6] The standard language is promoted as a unifying symbol for the nation across all ethnicities, linked to the concept ofBangsa Malaysia (lit. 'Malaysian Nation'). The status as a national language is codified in Article 152 of theconstitution,[7] further strengthened by the passage of theNational Language Act 1963/67. This standard Malay is often a second language following use of relatedMalayic languages spoken within Malaysia (excluding theIbanic) identified by local scholars as "dialects" (loghat),[8] 10 of which are used throughout Malaysia.[4] Avariant of Malay that is spoken inBrunei is also commonly spoken in East Malaysia.[citation needed] After the13 May Incident, English as the main kindergarten to university-level national education medium was gradually replaced with Malay since the 1970s.[6][9] The Education Act of 1996 reiterates that Malay is to be "the main medium of instruction in all educational institutions in the National Education System", with certain exceptions.[citation needed]
Citizens ofMinangkabau,Bugis orJavanese origins, who can be classified as "Malay" under constitutional definitions, may speak their respective ancestral tongues alongside Malay. The native tribes of East Malaysia have their own languages, which are related to but easily distinguishable from Malay.Iban is the main tribal language inSarawak, while theDusun andKadazan languages are spoken by the natives inSabah.[10] Some of these languages remain strong, being used in education and daily life.[4] Sabah has ten other sub-ethnic languages:Bajau,Bruneian,Murut,Lundayeh/Lun Bawang,Rungus,Bisaya,Iranun,Sama,Suluk andSungai. There are over 30 native ethnic groups, each of which has its own dialect. These languages are in danger of dying out unlike the major ones such asKadazan-Dusun, which have developed educational syllabuses.Iban also has developed an educational syllabus.[11] Languages on the peninsula can be divided into three major groups: Negrito, Senoi, and Malayic, further divided into 18 subgroups.[4] TheSemai language is used in education.[11] Thai is also spoken in northern parts of the peninsula, especially in northern Langkawi and mainland Kedah, Perlis, northern Perak, northern Terengganu, and northern Kelantan.[12]
A lot of efforts are being taken to preserve the endangered indigenous languages, such as Wikimedia Malaysia andInternational Islamic University Malaysia'sWikiKata project which documents the languages on online platforms such asWiktionary, as well as media channels like radio and newspaper being published in the indigenous languages.[13] Nevertheless, someOrang Asli languages have died out such as 'Low Country Semang' formerly spoken inPenang.[14]
Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English (MySE), is a form ofEnglish derived fromBritish English, although there is little official use of the term except with relation to education. English was used in the Parliament briefly upon independence (then as Federation of Malaya), prior to a gradual and complete transition to the Malay language, and continued to be used today for specific terminologies with permission. English, however, remains an official language in the State Legislative Assemblies and Courts ofSabah andSarawak.[15][16][17] Malaysian English differs little from standard British English.[7]
Malaysian English also sees wide usage in business, along withManglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavyMalay,Chinese, andTamil influences. Many Malaysians (particularly those who live in urban areas) are conversant in English, although some are only fluent in the Manglish form. The Malaysian government officially discourages the use of Manglish.[18] Many businesses in Malaysia conduct their transactions in English, and it is sometimes used in official correspondence.
The federal constitution provides that English would continue to serve as an official language for at least 10 years afterMerdeka until the parliament provides otherwise.[19] The passage of the National Language Act re-iterated the primacy of Malay as an official language for most official purposes, however the act provides for the use of English in certain official contexts. Among these, section 5 provides that English may be used in the parliament and state assemblies with the presiding officer's permission. Article 152(3) of the constitution and sections 6–7 of the National Language Act provide that all federal and state laws must be enacted in Malay and English.
TheMalaysia Agreement,[20] provided for the continued use of English in Sabah and Sarawak for any official purpose.[21] Under article 161(3) of the constitution, federal legislation affecting the use of English in Sabah and Sarawak would not become law in these states unless approved by their respective legislative assemblies. Sarawak has not adopted the National Language Act as of 2023;[22] meanwhile Sabah amended its constitution in 1973 to provide for Malay as "the official language of the state cabinet and assembly",[23] and passed the National Language (Application) Enactment 1973 which approved the adoption of National Language Act in Sabah.[24]
English was the predominant language in government until 1969.[9] There is significant tension regarding the status and usage of English in the country, as the language is seen both as a historical colonial imposition and as a crucial skill for academic achievement and global business.[7] English served as the medium of instruction for Maths and Sciences in all public schools per thePPSMI policy, but reverted to Bahasa Malaysia in national schools and mother-tongue languages in 2012.[25] The Parent Action Group for Education and former Prime MinisterMahathir Mohamad has called for science and maths to be taught in English again.[4][26][27]
The English language is an important aspect of the legal system in the country. Thelaw of Malaysia is commonly taught and read in English,[1] as the unwritten laws of Malaysia continues to be partially derived from pre-1957English common law, which is a legacy ofpast British colonisation of the constituents forming Malaysia. In addition, authoritative versions ofconstitutional law andstatutory law (written laws of Malaysia) are continuously available in both Malay and English.[1]
As a whole,Standard Chinese (Mandarin) and itsMalaysian dialect are the most widely spoken forms amongMalaysian Chinese, as it is alingua franca for Chinese who speak mutually unintelligible varieties; Mandarin is also the language of instruction in Chinese schools and an important language in business.[4]
As most Malaysian Chinese have ancestry from the southern provinces ofChina, various southern Chinese varieties are spoken in Malaysia (in addition toStandard Chinese (Mandarin) which originated from northern China and was introduced through the educational system. The more common forms in Peninsular Malaysia areHokkien,Cantonese,Hakka,Hainanese,Teochew, andHokchew.[12] Hokkien is mostly spoken inPenang,Kedah,Perlis,Klang,Johor, NorthernPerak, SouthwestPerak,Port Dickson, SouthernNegeri Sembilan,Kelantan,Terengganu, andMalacca, whereas Cantonese is mostly spoken inIpoh,Kuala Lumpur,Seremban andKuantan. InSarawak, most ethnic Chinese speak Hokkien, Hokchew, or Hakka. Hakka predominates inSabah except in the city ofSandakan where Cantonese is more frequently spoken despite the Hakka origins of the Chinese residing there.
As with Malaysian youths of other ethnicities, most Chinese youth are multilingual and can speak at least three languages with at least moderate fluency – Mandarin, English, and Malay, as well as their Chinese regiolect and/or the dominant Chinese regiolect in their area. However, most Chinese regiolects are losing ground to Mandarin, due to its prestige and use as the language of instruction in Chinese vernacular schools. Some parents speak exclusively in Mandarin with their children. Some of the less-spoken regiolects, such asHainanese, are facing extinction.
Tamil and itsMalaysian dialect are used predominantly by Tamils, who form a majority of Malaysian Indians.[28] It is especially used inPeninsular Malaysia. The Education Act of 1996 regulates the use of Tamil as medium of instruction at the primary level in"national-type schools", and also entitles Tamil children to obtain Tamil classes in national primary schools and national secondary schools (which use Malay as medium of instruction), provided "it is reasonable and practicable so to do and if the parents of at least fifteen pupils in the school so request".[29][30]
Tamil-speaking immigrants to Malaysia came from two groups,Sri Lankan Tamils who spokeSri Lankan Tamil dialects such as theJaffna Tamil dialect, and Indian Tamils who spoke dialect fromTamil Nadu. These dialects reflected class differences, with the Sri Lankan Tamils being more educated and overseeing the Indian Tamils, who primarily served as labourers on rubber estates. These two communities with their very different dialects remained mostly separate in Malaysia, forming two separate Tamil communities. Tamil is becoming less common among the more highly educated Tamil population, being predominantly replaced by English, and in a minority by Malay. Tamil-medium schools are considered less advantageous than English-medium schools, bringing little prospect of socioeconomic advancement. While the Malaysian government provides limited support for elementary Tamil schooling, secondary school is only taught in Malay, and there are no Tamil private schools. Usage of Tamil remains common among the less educated Tamil community, who often continue to live in their own communities on or near plantations, or in urban squatter settlements.[31]
One small group of former Tamil speakers, theChitty, almost entirely speak Malay.[31]
TheMalayalees inMalaysia are known to be the second largestIndian ethnicity, after theTamils.[32] Malayalees can be found in the West Coast states, mostly inPenang,Perak,Selangor,Negeri Sembilan,Malacca andJohore. They can be classified into three major groups: labourers, traders and government servants and estate clerks. Malayalee labourers were predominantlyHindus fromPalakkad andCannannore regions in Malabar. These communities spokeSouth Malabar dialect andKannur dialect. Some of the labourers who were not associated with theKangani system were placed in estates that had mix ethnicities, mostlyTamils. Thus, these labourers mix around with theTamils and eventually usedTamil vocabularies in their language. Some have even received formal Tamil education, which eventually lead them to not speaking Malayalam as their first language but Tamil. The Malayalam-speaking traders who came to Malaya were mostly from theMuslim communities inMalabar. They spoke theMoplah dialect, which has influence ofArabic andPersian language. This particular dialect is still used among today'sMalabariMuslims. Besides, Malayalees who were employed as estate clerks and semi-professional positions in the Malayan Civil Service consists of Hindus and Christians fromCochin andTravancore, as they were educated. These people spokeMalayalam dialects which are similar to the standard Malayalam spoken today.[citation needed] Many youngsters of theMalayalee community are unable to speak their mother tongue fluently because of the usage of English among the educated urbanMalayalees and the domination ofTamil, as a lingua franca of theMalaysian Indians.[33] Today, there are roughly more than 200,000 Malayalam speakers in Malaysia.
Other South Asian languages such asBengali,Gujarati,Hindi,Kannada,Marathi,Nepali,Odia,Punjabi,Sindhi,Sinhala,Telugu, andUrdu are also spoken.
A small number of Malaysians have Eurasian ancestry and speakcreole languages, such as the Portuguese-basedMalaccan Creoles.[34] A Spanish-based creole,Zamboangueño Chavacano, has spread into Sabah from the southernPhilippines.[35]
Sign languages includeMalaysian Sign Language and the olderSelangor Sign Language andPenang Sign Language. No sign language is used in the education of the deaf. Instead,Manually Coded Malay is used.
Estimated number of speakers in Malaysia as of 2019:[36][better source needed]
| Language | Code | Speakers | Family |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acehnese | ace | 84,000 | Chamic (Austronesian) |
| Banjarese | bjn | 26,000 | Malayic (Austronesian) |
| Buginese | bug | 143,000 | South Sulawesi (Austronesian) |
| Cham | cja | 13,000 | Chamic (Austronesian) |
| Javanese | jav | 661,000 | Javanese (Austronesian) |
| Kerinci | kvr | Malayic (Austronesian) | |
| Mandailing | btm | 31,000 | Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands (Austronesian) |
| Minangkabau | min | 931,000 | Malayic (Austronesian) |
The estimated numbers of speakers of Chinese languages in Malaysia as of 2019 are as follows:[36][better source needed]
| Language | ISO 639-3 code | Speakers | Family |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cantonese | yue | 1,443,000 | Sino-Tibetan |
| Foochow | 260,000 | Sino-Tibetan | |
| Hakka | hak | 1,787,000 | Sino-Tibetan |
| Hainanese | nan | 405,000 | Sino-Tibetan |
| Hokkien | nan | 1,966,000 | Sino-Tibetan |
| Mandarin | cmn | 1,019,000 | Sino-Tibetan |
| Min Bei | mnp | 397,000 | Sino-Tibetan |
| Teochew | nan | 1,038,000 | Sino-Tibetan |
Estimated number of speakers in Malaysia as of 2023:[36][better source needed]
| Language | Code | Speakers | Family |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gujarati | guj | 31,000 | Indo-European |
| Hindi | hin | 63,000 | Indo-European |
| Bengali | Ben | 87,000 | Indo-European |
| Malayalam | mal | 367,000 | Dravidian |
| Punjabi | pan | 72,000 | Indo-European |
| Tamil | tam | 1,993,000 | Dravidian |
| Telugu | tel | 126,000 | Dravidian |
| Urdu | urd | 16,000 | Indo-European |
English has been the official language of the State Legislative Assemblies and Courts in Sabah and Sarawak since Malaysia Day, Sept 16, 1963. Any change of the official language to Bahasa Melayu can only become effective when the State Legislative Assembly of Sabah or Sarawak agrees to adopt federal laws that make Bahasa Melayu the official language.
Deputy Prime Minister Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin announced last year that the policy of Teaching of Mathematics and Science in English (known by its Malay acronym, PPSMI) would be scrapped from 2012.
