TheByeol-hwangja-chongtong was one of the smaller cannons. It usually had trunnions and a mounting spike to be used on carts or ships' gunwales. It was used during theImjin War in the 1590s.
Cannons appeared in Korea by the mid 14th century during theGoryeo dynasty and quickly proliferated as naval and fortress-defense weapons. Major developments occurred throughout the 15th century, including the introduction of large siege mortars as well as major improvements that drastically increased range, power, and accuracy.
TheImjin War in the 1590s marked the beginning of a Korean military revolution which saw improvements incannon design and the introduction and adaptation of foreign-based firearms. This included theen masse adoption of muskets and the adoption of volley fire and rigorous drill techniques.[1]Breech-loading swivel guns were particularly popular as light anti-personnel artillery.
In the early 17th century, aCulverin calledHongyipao was introduced and used until the 19th century.
With the rising threat of European powers in the 19th century, theJoseon dynasty made attempts at reverse-engineering European firearms but eventually had to simply buy them from foreign entities.
The earliest possible references to firearms in Korea is to what might have been gunpowder-ignited flamethrowers in 1104 and explosive bombs in 1135.[2] The next reference is to a cannon which fired large arrows being tested for use on the northwestern frontier in 1356.[2]
In 1373,King Gongmin visited a new fleet which was being constructed for use against theWokou, including the firing of cannon. He then requested a shipment of cannon, gunpowder, and gunpowder ingredients from Ming, which was granted the following year.[2][3]
However, these weapons were not produced locally and had to be secured from elsewhere.
Ch'oe Mu-sŏn, a minor military official, managed to learn the methods of potassium nitrate purification from a visiting Chinese saltpeter merchant.[3] After petitioning the court for several years, the Firearms Directorate was established in 1377 to oversee firearms production and development.[4]
A fleet of ships was trained in cannon use in 1378 and in 1380 saw its first use defeating a Wokou pirate near the mouth of the Geum River.[5][6] Three years later in 1383 the Korean navy again defeated the Wokou with cannon.[6]
By 1395, a number of weapons were in use: a series of cannons called thedaejanggunpo,ijanggunpo, andsamjanggunpo, a shell-firing mortar called thejillyeopo, series ofyuhwa,juhwa, andchokcheonhwa rockets, which were the forerunners of thesingijeon, and a signal gun called theshinpo.[7]
In 1410, Korea had 160 ships equipped with gunpowder artillery.[6]
DuringTaejong's rule, improvements were made. Among the people responsible for the developments wasCh'oe Hae-san, the son of the aforementioned Ch'oe Mu-sŏn. Thecheon "heaven" or "sky",ji "earth",hyeon "black", andhwang "yellow" or "gold" names are not significant, being the first four characters of theThousand Character Classic, thus making them equivalent to Cannons A, B, C, and D.[8] The following is a list some of the main cannons (calledhwapo "fire gourd") of this time period:[9]
Thecheonja-hwapo "heaven" or "sky" (천자화포/天字火砲), with a maximum range of about 500–620 m (1,640–2,030 ft) (400-500 bo).
Thejija-hwapo "earth" (지자화포/地字火砲), with a maximum range of about 620 m (2,030 ft) (500 bo) with an arrow or dart.
Thehyeonja-hwapo "black" (현자화포/玄字火砲), with a maximum range of about 620 m (2,030 ft) (500 bo) with an arrow or dart.
Thehwangja-hwapo "yellow" or "gold" (황자화포/黃字火砲), with a maximum range of about 620 m (2,030 ft) (500 bo).
Thegaja-hwapo (가자화포/架子火砲), with a maximum range of about 250–370 m (820–1,210 ft) (200-300 bo).
These-hwapo "slender" or "small" (세화포/細火砲), with a maximum range of about 250 m (820 ft) (200 bo). This was a very small hand-cannon which functioned as a pistol or a cavalry weapon.
Written records for cannons of this era come from theVeritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty.
Early Mid Joseon (mid 15th century to mid 16th century)
Three large chongtong at the Jinju Fortress museum. The closest is acheonja-chongtong, the second is ajija-chongtong, and the third is ahyeonja-chongtong. The cannon is equipped with a large arrow, Daejanggunjeon(대장군전/大將軍箭).Joseon navy cannons.
The small-but-powerful cannons of this era saw extensive use during theJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–98), by both the Joseon Army and the Navy. They were very effective against the weaker-built Japanese ships.
Sejong made many improvements, and increased the ranges of these cannons (calledhwapo and laterhwatong "fire tube" andchongtong "gun tube"):[9]
Thecheonja-hwapo (천자화포/天字火砲), with a maximum range of about 1,610 m (5,280 ft) (1300 bo) with an arrow or dart, and about 1,240 m (4,070 ft) (1000 bo) with four arrows or darts, with less powder. This later came to be called thejanggun-hwatong "general fire tube" (장군화통).
Thejija-hwapo (지자화포/地字火砲), with a maximum range of about 990–1,120 m (3,250–3,670 ft) (800-900 bo) with an arrow or dart, and about 740–870 m (2,430–2,850 ft) (600-700 bo) with four arrows or darts, with equal powder. Later called theil-chongtong "first chongtong" (일총통).
Thehyeonja-hwapo (현자화포/玄字火砲) is not mentioned among the improved cannons. This was later called thei-chongtong "second chongtong" (이총통).
Thehwangja-hwapo (황자화포/黃字火砲), with a maximum range of about 990 m (3,250 ft) (800 bo) with an arrow or dart, and about 620 m (2,030 ft) (500 bo) with four arrows or darts with equal powder. This was later called thesam-chongtong "third chongtong" (삼총통).
Thegaja-hwapo (가자화포/架子火砲), with a maximum range of about 740 m (2,430 ft) (600 bo) with an arrow or dart, and about 500 m (1,600 ft) (400 bo) with four arrows or darts with equal powder.
These-hwapo (세화포/細火砲), with a maximum range of about 740 m (2,430 ft) (600 bo) with an arrow or dart with equal powder. This gun was about 13.8 cm (5.4 in) long and had a bore of about 9 mm (0.35 in).[10] It was later called these-chongtong (세총통/細銃筒).
bullanggi
In the early 1500s, thebullanggi (불랑기/佛狼機), abreech-loading swivel gun, was introduced to Korea from Portugal via China. It was divided into sizes 1 through 5, in decreasing size. There was also a mortar of this period called thechongtong-wan'gu.
Written records of these cannons come from theVeritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty and theGukjo Orye Seorye (Korean: 국조오례서례;Hanja: 國朝五禮序例), published in 1474.
Late Mid Joseon (late 16th century to late 18th century)
A unique method of loading the Koreans (and the Chinese, to some extent) was that they used a block of wood (gyeongmok) and some paper as a wad. This increased range, power, and possibly accuracy. Then, jolanhwan (조란환/iron shot) and sand were repeatedly placed on top of it, and finally a cannonball covered with lead was loaded.
Cannonballs of stone (danseok) or iron (cheoltanja), iron shot (sometimes in conjunction with arrows) were used, but a large wooden dart with iron fins (leather for the smaller types) and head was preferred.[11][12] These were more accurate.[11] Test firings in Seoul noted that the darts buried themselves into the ground up to their iron fletching.[11] When the Korea Naval Academy tested one shot out of acheonja-chongtong, it flew 400 m (1,300 ft) and penetrated 80 cm (31 in) into a granite wall.[13]
TheMortars used for sieges fired bombs called stone balls or Bigyeokjincheolloe(비격진천뢰/飛擊震天雷). Like theCoehorn, this one was equipped with a primitiveTime fuse, so the fuse would light when fired and explode after a certain period of time when it fell to the ground.
^abcChase, Kenneth (2003).Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 173.ISBN978-0521822749.
^abNeedham, Joseph (1986).Science and Civilization in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7: Military Technology and the Gunpowder Epic. New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. p. 307.ISBN0-521-30358-3.
^Needham, Joseph (1986).Science and Civilization in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7: Military Technology and the Gunpowder Epic. New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. pp. 309–310.ISBN0-521-30358-3.
^abcTurnbull, Stephen, "Fighting Ships of the Far East, Volume 2: Japan and Korea", January 25, 2003, p 21.
^Books, Amber, Joregensen, Christer, Niderost, Eric, Rice, Bob S. "Fighting Techniques of the Oriental World: Equipment, Combat Skills, and Tactics", December 9, 2008, p 201.
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