Italian invasion of Albania
Part ofWorld War I in Albania during theBalkans theatre ofWorld War I and thecollapse of the Principality of Albania
Italian soldiers inVlorë,Albania, duringWorld War I. The tricolour flag of Italy bearing theSavoy royal shield is shown hanging alongside an Albanian flag from the balcony of the Italianprefecture headquarters.
Date 1916 – 1918 (Occupation of Vlorë and Saseno since 1914) Location SouthernAlbania Result Italian victory
Belligerents
Italy Italian-occupied Albania Supported by: Kingdom of Serbia	Austria-Hungary Austro-Hungarian occupied Albania Albanian volunteers and irregulars
Commanders and leaders
Settimio Piacentini Emilio Bertotti[1] Giacinto Ferrero Oreste Bandini[2] Settimio Piacentini Turhan Përmeti[3][4]	Hermann Kövess von Kövessháza Ignaz Trollmann[5] Karl von Pflanzer-Baltin Ludwig Können-Horák[6]: 150–159  Ahmet Zogu[7] Prênk Bibë Doda[citation needed]
Units involved
ItalianXVI Army Corps"Corpo Speciale d’Albania":[2] 38th brigades ("Savona" and "Puglie") 43rd brigades ("Arno" and "Marche") 44th brigades ("Taranto" and "Verona")	Austrian XIX Army Corps[6]: 159 [6]: 374 :[5] 47th and 81st divisions 220thk.k.Landsturm brigade Austrian3rd Army Corps Albanian irregulars "Albaner legion", divided into nine smallbattalions[8]
Strength
approx. 100,000 men[3][2] (initially) About 144,000 men[4][dubious –discuss] (peak)	100,000+ men[9][10][dubious –discuss] 5,000–6,000 irregulars and militia[8]
Casualties and losses
Total: 2,214 casualties(1916–1918)[11] 298 dead 1,069 wounded 847 missing	approx. 2,000 prisoners inBerat[12] Unknown
More casualty details in body text

TheItalian Campaign of Albania (inItalian:Campagna Italiana di Albania), took place between 1916 and 1918 in the territory ofAlbania, as part of the wider events of theBalkans theatre ofWorld War I.

At the outbreak of the war, Albania, which had been independent for less than two years, was in a state of deep internal crisis, with the weak government of Prime MinisterEssad Pasha (allied with theKingdom of Serbia) undermined by armed groups supported byAustria-Hungary and by the territorial claims of neighboring states, particularlyItaly andGreece.^[13]The defeat of the Serbian army by the Central Powers in October 1915 and its retreat towards theAdriatic coast through northern Albania prompted Austria-Hungary to invade the country and, conversely, Italy to deploy its expeditionary force to protect the Serbian soldiers duringthe retreat^[14][15][7] and to maintain possession of the strategic port ofValona (which was occupied in December 1914);^[16][17] the situation stabilized at the end of 1916, with the Austro-Hungarians masters of the northern and central regions and the Italians of the south, where they found support from French forces engaged on theMacedonian front. Meanwhile, to protect the Greek minority, Greek control was established in the southern districts replacing theNorthern Epirote units beginning in October 1914,^[17] but Italian troops drove the Greeks from southern Albania in 1916.^[18][17]

The Albanian front remained stationary until mid-1918 when, as part of the larger offensives undertaken by the Allies in the Balkans, the Italian forces went on the attack, progressively overrunning the Austro-Hungarians area by October 31, 1918. The signing of theArmistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918 marked the end of hostilities withAustria-Hungary.^[12][17]

Longa possession of theOttoman Empire, Albania gained independence on the eve ofWorld War I: in January 1912a large revolt in Albanian territories forced the Ottoman authorities to accept an agreement granting broad autonomy to the region,^[19][20][21] and on 28 November 1912 an assembly of local nationalists gathered inVlorë proclaimed the independence of the nation as "independent Albania" and the establishment of a provisional Albanian government headed byIsmail Qemali.^[22] The neighbouring Balkan nations, however, had different expansionist aims on the territories of Albania itself, aims which came to fruition during the events of theFirst Balkan War (October 1912-May 1913): theKingdom of Montenegro aimedat annexing the city ofScutari in the north,^[23] theKingdom of Serbia aspired to the possession of northern and central Albania in order to obtain an outlet to theAdriatic Sea (which concluded in the formation of theDrač County),^[24][25] while theKingdom of Greece aimed at occupyingNorthern Epirus, a region inhabited by a large Greek minority.^[26]

The expansionist aims of the states of the "Balkan League" found prompt opposition from theAustro-Hungarian Empire, which in particular opposed the obtaining of an outlet to the sea for enemy Serbia, and from theKingdom of Italy, which looked favourably upon an independent Albania on which to exercise a dominant political influence.^[27] The ambassadors of the main European powers, meeting inLondon to redraw the territorial layout of the Balkans, now irremediably changed by the conflict, therefore supported the idea of an independent Albania to which the nations of the League had to submit: theTreaty of London of 30 May 1913, concluding theFirst Balkan War, therefore recognised the institution of an independent Albanian state extending fromScutari toNorthern Epirus. For the government of the new state the great powers chose a German prince,Wilhelm of Wied, who on 7 March 1914 was crowned as sovereign of thePrincipality of Albania, for which theInternational Control Commission,^[28] appointed by the powers, was given the task of organizing the administration of the new state with the help of anInternational Gendarmerie composed of local troops supervised byDutch officers,^[29] who were gradually replaced by German and Austrian officers who arrived in Durazzo on July 4.^[30]

The internal situation of independent Albania was more chaotic than ever, a condition fueled both by the destabilizing maneuvers of neighboring nations and by political divisions among the Albanian nationalists themselves.^[31][32]Essad Pasha, former Ottoman general and leader of the resistance of Scutari to the siege of the Montenegrins, established in October 1913 a "Republic of Central Albania" with its headquarters inDurazzo,^[33] presenting itself as an alternative to the provisional government ofIsmail Qemali located inValona; under pressure from the European powers Essad then accepted the post of Minister of the Interior in the nascent government of Prince Wilhelm, but in January 1914, strong in the support of the Serbs,^[34][35] he attempted acoup d'état inElbasan with the units of the Albanian gendarmerie, clashing with the units of the International Gendarmerie and those of the regular army that remained faithful to Wilhelm.^[36] In the south, on 28 February 1914 the regions inhabited by Greeks proclaimed independence as theAutonomous Republic of Northern Epirus under the leadership ofGeorgios Christakis-Zografos with the open support of the government ofAthens, while in the north the local Catholic clans supported byAustria-Hungary with an anti-Serbian function established their own militias under the leadership ofPrênk Bibë Doda andBajram Curri, who were joined by the armed groups of the nationalist leaderIsa Boletini recruited among the Albanian expatriates of Kosovo, who fled after the annexation of the region to Serbia;^[36] the rest of the country was then affected by widespread banditry, as well as riots organised by the various clans against each other.^[37]

The anti-Muslim alliance between the Catholics of the north, the Kosovars of Boletini and the Gendarmerie of Prince Wilhelm putEssad Pasha's forces in a hard situation, forcing him into exile in Italy in May 1914;^[37]a vast peasant revolt of Muslim inspiration,^[38] led byHaxhi Qamili^[39] from the central regions and in favour of a restoration ofOttoman rule over Albania,^[40][41] however, put the central authorities in such difficulty that their control was reduced in practice to the sole provisional capital of Durazzo after the capture by the rebels ofBerat on 12 July 1914 and ofValona on 21 August. On 3 September 1914 Prince Wilhelm, although not formally renouncing his role as monarch, left Albania to take refuge inVenice and was exlied there without trial.^[42] Three days later, theInternational Control Commission ceased to exist, leaving the country at the mercy of chaos.^[43]

The Albanian Senate appealed to the exiledEssad Pasha to form a new government; with Italian support, on 17 September 1914 Essadsigned a treaty of alliance with Serbian Prime MinisterNikola Pašić which guaranteed him economic and military support for his work of reconquering Albania.^[44] Essad returned to Albania in October 1914 and his forces quickly secured control of Durazzo and the central regions, but failed to restore order in the rest of the country:^[45] while the northern regions remained out of control, after clashes between Essad's men and Epirote independentists, on 27 October 1914 the Greek army invadedNorthern Epirus and established a military administration on the territories formerly part of theAutonomous Republic of Northern Epirus.^[36]

The Greek move worried the Italian government, fearful that Athens was acting under the aegis of Austria-Hungary to guaranteeVienna the possession of Valona and therefore the passage through theStrait of Otranto; presenting its move as an attempt to limit the smuggling of arms into the Albanian region, on 31 October 1914 the government of Prime MinisterAntonio Salandra ordered the occupation of the Albanian islet ofSaseno^[46] by a landing force of theRegia Marina, followed on 26 December by the unopposed landing in the port ofValona^[47] of units of Italian sailors later joined by aregiment ofbersaglieri and a battery ofmountain artillery of theRegio Esercito.^[48]

The events of the internal crisis in Albania were now becoming linked to those of the First World War, which began on 28 July 1914 with the declaration of war byAustria-Hungary againstSerbia (July Crisis) whenArchduke Franz Ferdinandwas assassinated.^[49] The Austro-Hungarians began to supply weapons and funds to the Catholic militias ofBajram Curri and the Kosovar armed groups ofIsa Boletini so that they could conduct raids and harassment actions against Serbian positions in Kosovo. The situation of the pro-Serbian government ofEssad Pasha worsened in November, with theentry into the war of the Ottoman Empire on the side of theCentral Powers: the authorities inConstantinople (Istanbul) proclaimed ajihad against the nations of theTriple Entente and their allies, and groups of Muslim rebels soon put Essad's Albanian gendarmes in a tight spot, cutting him off and effectively besieging him insideDurazzo.^{[50][better source needed]}

Essad's critical position prompted his Serbian allies to intervene: on 29 May 1915, a contingent of 20,000 Serbian soldiers under the command of GeneralDragutin Milutinović invaded northern Albania from three directions, quickly dispersing the pro-Habsburg militias of Curri and Boletini, forcing them to take refuge in their strongholds in thedistrict of Mirdita; within ten days the Serbs extended their occupation to the central regions, takingElbasan andTirana and freeing Essad's forces in Durazzo from the siege of the Muslim rebels.^{[50][better source needed]} Taking advantage of the situation, on 11 June KingNicholas I of Montenegro, an ally of the Serbs, ordered the occupation of Albanian territory north of theDrin River, and on 15 June the Montenegrins entered Scutari;^[51] although at least formally Essad's government was in favour of theTriple Entente, the Allied governments began to formulate a territorial division of Albania between Montenegro, Serbia,Greece andItaly, and agreements in this sense were outlined during the stipulation in April 1915 of theLondon Pact with the Italian government, which was about to declare war againstAustria-Hungary.^{[50][better source needed]}

The entry into the war of theKingdom of Bulgaria on the side of theCentral Powers on 7 October 1915 sealed the fate of Serbia: attacked from the north by a joint Austro-German army and from the east by the Bulgarians, the Serbian army was defeated and routed towards the region ofKosovo; the landing of Anglo-French forces atSalonika failed to bring any benefit to Serbia, as the Bulgarian troops quickly occupiedVardar Macedonia, preventing the reunion of the allies.^[52] On 28 November 1915, the Serbian commander-in-chief, GeneralRadomir Putnik, ordered a general retreat from Kosovo towardsnorthern Albania and theAdriatic coast, from where the Serbs hoped to obtain relief from the Allied naval forces: in the middle of winter, under heavy snowfall and with poor supplies of food, the Serbian forces had to cross the difficultmountainous region of Prokletije, losing tens of thousands of men to hardship,hypothermia and attacks by Albanian irregulars before reaching the areas controlled by Essad Pasha's gendarmes.^{[50][better source needed]}

Faced with thecollapse of Serbia in October 1915, the Entente governments pressured Italy to send a contingent to Albania and to make its naval forces in the Adriatic available to bring supplies to Putnik's men. After long discussions between the Italians, French and British about the distribution of the burden of the operation, on 22 November 1915 the naval supply missions from Italy to Albania began, while at the beginning of December the landing of Italian troops began: on 1 December a naval convoy brought toValona the first 5,000 soldiers of the "Italian Special Corps of Albania", brought to a total of 28,000 men under GeneralEmilio Bertotti by mid-December and to 50,000 men in January, with the "Savona" and "Verona" brigades, two regiments of territorial militia, a cavalrysquadron, three mountain batteries and four heavy artillery batteries.^[12]

The Austro-Hungarian fleet attempted to disturb these operations: on 5 December thelight cruiserNovara with fourdestroyers and threetorpedo boats bombarded the port ofSan Giovanni di Medua sinking twocargo ships, while on 6 December thecruiserHelgoland with six destroyers attacked the roadstead ofDurazzo sinking two Italian and three Albanian sailing ships.^[53] On 29 December theHelgoland and five destroyers carried outa new action against Durazzo, but the group ended up in a naval minefield losing the destroyerLika while the same typeTriglav, damaged, was then sunk after being intercepted by an Anglo-French-Italian naval group.^[54] The failure led to the suspension of Austro-Hungarian surface raids against traffic directed to Albania, which were countered by the actions of thesubmarines only.

After defeating and forcing Montenegro to surrender ina rapid campaign after theBattle of Lovćen Pass,^[55] at the end of January 1916 Austro-Hungarian forces invaded northern Albania in pursuit of the remnants of the Serbian army, while Bulgarian units penetrated the country from the north-east across theDrin river: the Bulgarians tookElbasan on 29 January, while the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps under GeneralIgnaz Trollmann von Lovcenberg (with the 47th, 81stInfantry Divisions and the 220thk.k.Landsturm Brigade) began to fight its way intocentral Albania.^[5] The exhausted Serbian army was unable to oppose this invasion, and it was therefore decided to evacuate it by sea: Italian, French and British ships began the first embarkations of troops from the ports of San Giovanni di Medua and Durazzo on 12 December 1915, and on 24 December KingPeter I of Serbia embarked with his entourage toBrindisi; the Italians insisted strongly that the Serbian army move from its quarters in the north to the safer port ofValona in the south, a manoeuvre which began on 7 January 1916.^[56] Two interventions by surface units of the Austro-Hungarian fleet against the convoys, on 27 January and 6 February, were effectively repelled by the Allied escort units.^[57]

The embarkation operations from San Giovanni di Medua concluded on 22 January and the city was evacuated, ending up being occupied by the Austro-Hungarians on 29 January; the embarkation of the Serbs from Durazzo ended on 9 February, but it was decided to keep the Italian garrison already present in the port (about 9,000 men of the "Savona" Brigade with artillery and support units, under the command of GeneralGiacinto Ferrero) in an attempt to ensure the protection of the weak government ofEssad Pasha.^[12] The Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps occupiedTirana on 11 February without encountering resistance, and then approached Durazzo; after a failed surprise assault on the Italian positions in the village ofPieskza, the Austro-Hungarians began a strong attack on the morning of 23 February, immediately putting Ferrero's units under pressure and pushing the Italian command to order the evacuation of the city. Despite the rough sea and the Austro-Hungarian artillery fire, the Italian troops managed to embark on the transports hastily assembled for the operation, while thebattleshipEnrico Dandolo and the destroyers of theRegia Marina kept the enemy units at bay with their large calibre guns; the last units of the "Savona" Brigade were embarked on the evening of 26 February and transported to safety in Valona, after having lost around 800 men between dead, wounded and prisoners.^[58] Among those evacuated from Durazzo there was alsoEssad Pasha with the remains of his government and several hundred loyalists, transported to safety in Italy;^[2] after a stay inRome andParis, in August 1916 Essad reached Salonika where with the assistance of the Serbs and the French he set up a cabinet recognised by the Allies as the Albanian government in exile.^{[50][better source needed]}

TheKingdom of Italy occupied the port ofVlorë in December 1914, but had to withdraw after the Austrian-Hungarian invasion in late 1915–early 1916, and the fall ofDurrës on 27 February 1916. In May 1916, the Italian XVI Corps, some 100,000 men under the command of GeneralSettimio Piacentini, returned and occupied part of southernAlbania by the autumn 1916,^[59] while theFrench army occupiedKorçë and its surrounding areas on 29 November 1916. TheItalian forces (inGjirokastër) andFrench forces (in Korçë), according mainly to the development of theBalkans theatre, entered the area of formerAutonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (controlled by the Greek minority) in autumn 1916, after approval of the Triple Entente.

The establishment of theAutonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë was done on 10 December 1916, by French authorities with a protocol, according to which an autonomous province would be established on the territories of Korçë,Bilishti,Kolonja,Opar and Gora in eastern Albania.

On 12 December 1916,Italy asked for explanations from theQuai d'Orsay, through its ambassador, because the establishment of the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë violated theTreaty of London.^[60]Austria-Hungary used French precedent in Korçë to justify the proclamation of independence of Albania under Italian protection on 3 January 1917, inShkodra.

The Kingdom of Italy did the same when proclaiming independence of Albania under its protection on 23 June 1917, inGjirokastra^[61] by generalGiacinto Ferrero proclaimed on that day the independence of Albania, who in the next weeks occupiedIoannina inEpirus.^[62] Neither Great Britain nor France had been consulted beforehand.^[63] This Albanian republic under the leadership ofTurhan Përmeti, protected by 100,000 soldiers of the Italian Army, adopted officially a red flag with a black eagle in the middle, but raised a storm of protests even in the Italian Parliament.^[64]

In autumn 1918, the Italians expanded occupations to areas of northernGreece (aroundKastoria) and westernMacedonia (aroundBitola), conquered from the Bulgarians and Ottomans. On 25 September the Italian 35 Division reached and occupiedKrusevo deep inside western Macedonia.^[65] In October 1918, the ItalianXVI Corpo d' Armata (nearly four divisions, with 2 Albanian volunteers battalions) conquered all north-central Albania from the Austrians: on 14 OctoberDurrës, the next dayTirana and on 31 OctoberScutari; finally on 3 NovemberUlcinj andBar in coastalMontenegro were taken.^[66]

In November 1918, when World War I finished, nearly all what is now contemporary Albania was under the Italian influence. ARegency government was announced following the end of the war. The French expedition withdrew fromKorçë in May 1920, resulting in the area being ceded to the Regency.^[67] In a country that lacked nearly everything after centuries of Ottoman rule, were built 546 km (339 mi) of new roads, 110 km (68 mi) of new railroads, 3,000 km (1,900 mi) of telegraph lines, 9 teleferics, a few hospitals and some modern administrative buildings.^[68]

An Italian expeditionary corps in Albania took part in the fighting during theAlbanian campaign of World War I. Already in 1914, before the Italian entry in the war, Italians occupied theBay of Valona and the island ofSaseno. From 1915 to 1918, Italians sent reinforcements that confrontedAustro-Hungarian forces in Albania. In 1920, Italy evacuated Valona and annexed Saseno.

A delegation sent by a postwarAlbanian National Assembly that met atDurrës in December 1918 defended Albanian interests at theParis Peace Conference, but the conference denied Albania official representation. The National Assembly, anxious to keep Albania intact, expressed willingness to accept Italian protection and even an Italian prince as a ruler so long as it would mean Albania did not lose territory.

But in January 1920, at theParis Peace Conference, negotiators fromFrance,Britain,Italy andGreece agreed to divide Albania among Yugoslavia, Italy, and Greece as a diplomatic expedient aimed at finding a compromise solution to the territorial conflict between Italy and Yugoslavia. The deal gave theValona territory and areas of south-central Albania to Italy. This deal created huge anti-Italian resentment between many Albanians and in May 1920 the Italians (even because of demobilisation of their troops after World War I ended) withdrew to some important cities (Durazzo, Scutari, Tirane, Valona, Tepelani andClisura) and their surrounding areas: subsequently they were forced to fight theVlora War. The revolutionary movements^[69] in Italy made the presence of the last 20,000 soldiers of the Italian Army in Albania basically impossible.

On August 2, 1920, the Albanian-Italian protocol was signed, upon which Italy abandoned Vlora, while it officially annexed the island ofSaseno (both territories had been occupied in 1914). This put an end to Italian claims for a mandate over Albania, rescuing the territory of the Albanian state from further partition.^[70] However, the treaties of Tirana (in addition to the 1920 agreement, two more were signed in 1926 and 1927) gave Italy growing protection over the country. Although more and more in the Italian sphere of influence, the country remained officially independent until, in 1939,Benito Mussolini ordered anItalian invasion of Albania and forced theKingdom of Albania in personal union with Italy.^[71]

• Albania during World War I
• Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë
• History of Albania
• Principality of Albania
• Italian invasion of Albania
• Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus

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• Stickney, Edith Pierpont (1924).Southern Albania, 1912–1923.Stanford University Press.ISBN 9780804761710.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
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• New-York Tribune (December 28, 1914)."Italy Notifies the Powers Albania Shall Not Join War".New-York Tribune. RetrievedOctober 24, 2014.
• The New York Sun (November 1, 1914)."Italy Occupies Saseno".The New York Sun. RetrievedOctober 24, 2014.
• Albertini, Luigi (1952–1953).Origins of the War of 1914. London: Oxford University Press.OCLC 443476100.

• (in Italian) Biagini, Antonello.Storia dell'Albania contemporanea. Bompiani editore. Milano, 2005
• (in Italian) Borgogni, Massimo.Tra continuità e incertezza. Italia e Albania (1914-1939). La strategia politico-militare dell'Italia in Albania fino all'Operazione "Oltre Mare Tirana" . 2007 Franco Angeli
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• (in Italian)Italian Army in Albania in 1916 & 1917
• (in Italian)Italian Army in Albania in 1918

• Balkans
• Albania in World War I
• World War I
• Italy in World War I
• Albania–Italy military relations

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