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Thespread of Islam spans almost 1,400 years. Theearly Muslim conquests that occurred following thedeath of Muhammad in 632 CE led to the creation of thecaliphates, expanding over a vast geographical area;conversion to Islam was boosted by Arab Muslim forces expanding over vast territories and building imperial structures over time.[1][2][3][4] Most of the significant expansion occurred during the reign of therāshidūn ("rightly-guided") caliphs from 632 to 661 CE, which were the first four successors of Muhammad.[4] These earlycaliphates, coupled withMuslim economics and trading, theIslamic Golden Age, and the age of the Islamicgunpowder empires, resulted inIslam's spread outwards fromMecca towards theIndian,Atlantic, andPacific Oceans and the creation of theMuslim world. TheIslamic conquests, which culminated in the Arab empire being established across three continents (Asia,Africa, andEurope), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings.[5] Trade played an important role in the spread of Islam in some parts of the world, such as Indonesia.[6][7] During the early centuries of Islamic rule, conversions in the Middle East were mainly individual or small-scale. While mass conversions were favored for spreading Islam beyond Muslim lands, policies within Muslim territories typically aimed for individual conversions to weaken non-Muslim communities. However, there were exceptions, like the forced mass conversion of theSamaritans.[8]
Muslim dynasties were soon established, and subsequent empires such as those of theUmayyads,Abbasids,Mamluks,Seljukids, and theAyyubids were among some of the largest and most powerful in the world. TheAjuran andAdal Sultanates, and the wealthyMali Empire, inNorth Africa, theDelhi,Deccan, andBengal Sultanates, andMughal andDurrani Empires, andKingdom of Mysore andNizam of Hyderabad in theIndian subcontinent, theGhaznavids,Ghurids,Samanids in Persia,Timurids, and theOttoman Empire inAnatolia significantly changed the course of history. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science, supported by far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, physicians, andphilosophers, all contributing to the Islamic Golden Age. TheTimurid Renaissance and the Islamic expansion in South and East Asia fostered cosmopolitan and eclecticMuslim cultures in the Indian subcontinent, Malaysia, Indonesia, and China.[9] The Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the Middle East and North Africa in the early modern period, also did not officially endorse mass conversions, but evidence suggests they occurred, particularly in theBalkans, often to evade thejizya tax. Similarly, Christian sources mention requests for mass conversions to Islam, such as inCyprus, where Ottoman authorities refused, fearing economic repercussions.[8]
As of 2016, there were 1.7 billion Muslims,[10][11] with one out of four people in the world being Muslim,[12] making Islam thesecond-largest religion.[13] Out of children born from 2010 to 2015, 31% were born to Muslims,[14] and currently Islam is the world'sfastest-growing major religion.[15][16][17]
Alongside the terminology of the "spread of Islam", scholarship of the subject has also given rise to the terms "Islamization",[a] "Islamicization",[18] and "Islamification" (Arabic:أسلمة,romanized: aslamah). These terms are used concurrently with the terminology of the "spread of Islam" to refer to the process through which a society shifts towards the religion ofIslam and becomes largelyMuslim. Societal Islamization has historically occurred over the course of many centuries since the spread of Islam outside of theArabian Peninsula through theearly Muslim conquests, with notable shifts occurring in theLevant,Iran,North Africa, theHorn of Africa,West Africa,[19]Central Asia,South Asia (inAfghanistan,Maldives,Pakistan, andBangladesh),Southeast Asia (inMalaysia,Brunei, andIndonesia),Southeastern Europe (inAlbania,Bosnia and Herzegovina, andKosovo, among others),Eastern Europe (inthe Caucasus,Crimea, andthe Volga), andSouthern Europe (inSpain,Portugal, andSicily prior tore-Christianizations).[20] In contemporary usage, "Islamization" and its variants too can also be used with implied negative connotations to refer to the perceived imposition of anIslamist social and political system on a society with an indigenously different social and political background.
TheEnglish synonym of "Muslimization", in use since before 1940 (e.g.,Waverly Illustrated Dictionary), conveys a similar meaning as "Islamization". 'Muslimization' has more recently also been used as a term coined to describe the overtly Muslim practices of newconverts to the religion who wish to reinforce their newly acquired religious identity.[21]
Within the century of the establishment of Islam upon theArabian Peninsula and the subsequent rapid expansion during theearly Muslim conquests, one of the most significant empires in world history was formed.[22] For the subjects of the empire, formerly of theByzantine and theSasanian Empires, not much changed in practice. The objective of the conquests was mostly of a practical nature, as fertile land and water were scarce in the Arabian Peninsula. A real Islamization therefore came about only during the subsequent centuries.[23]
Ira M. Lapidus distinguishes between two separate strands of converts of the time: animists and polytheists of tribal societies of the Arabian Peninsula and theFertile Crescent and the native Christians and Jews existing before the Muslims arrived.[24]
The empire spread from the Atlantic Ocean to theAral Sea, from theAtlas Mountains to theHindu Kush. It was bounded mostly by "a combination of natural barriers and well-organized states".[25]
For the polytheistic and pagan societies, apart from the religious and spiritual reasons that individuals may have had, conversion to Islam "represented the response of a tribal, pastoral population to the need for a larger framework for political and economic integration, a more stable state, and a more imaginative and encompassing moral vision to cope with the problems of a tumultuous society."[24] In contrast, for tribal, nomadic, monotheistic societies, "Islam was substituted for a Byzantine or Sassanian political identity and for a Christian, Jewish orZoroastrian religious affiliation."[24] Conversion initially was neither required nor necessarily wished for: "(The Arab conquerors) did not require the conversion as much as the subordination of non-Muslim peoples. At the outset, they were hostile to conversions because new Muslims diluted the economic and status advantages of the Arabs."[24]
Only in subsequent centuries, with the development of the religious doctrine of Islam and with that the understanding of the Muslimummah, would mass conversion take place. The new understanding by the religious and political leadership in many cases led to a weakening or breakdown of the social and religious structures of parallel religious communities such as Christians and Jews.[24]
The caliphs of the Arab dynasty established the empire's first school, which taught the Arabic language and Islamic studies. The caliphs furthermore began the ambitious project of building mosques across the empire, many of which remain today, such as theUmayyad Mosque, in Damascus. At the end of the Umayyad period, less than 10% of the people in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Spain were Muslim. Only the Arabian Peninsula had a higher proportion of Muslims among the population.[26]
The Abbasids replaced the expanding empire and "tribal politics" of "the tight-knit Arabian elite[25] with cosmopolitan culture and disciplines of Islamicscience,[25]philosophy,theology,law andmysticism became more widespread, and the gradual conversions of the empire's populations occurred. Significant conversions also occurred beyond the extent of the empire such as that of theTurkic tribes inCentral Asia and peoples living in regions south of theSahara and north of theSahel in Africa through contact with Muslim traders active in the area andSufi orders. In Africa, Islam spread along three routes, across the Sahara and Sahel via trading towns such asTimbuktu, up theNile Valley throughthe Sudan up toUganda and across theRed Sea and downEast Africa through settlements such asMombasa andZanzibar. The initial conversions were of a flexible nature.
The reasons that by the end of the 10th century, a large part of the population had converted to Islam are diverse. According to the British-Lebanese historianAlbert Hourani, one of the reasons may be that
"Islam had become more clearly defined, and the line between Muslims and non-Muslims more sharply drawn. Muslims now lived within an elaborated system of ritual, doctrine and law clearly different from those of non-Muslims. (...) The status of Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians was more precisely defined, and in some ways it was inferior. They were regarded as the 'People of the Book', those who possessed a revealed scripture, or 'People of the Covenant', with whom compacts of protection had been made. In general, they were notforced to convert, but they suffered from restrictions. They paida special tax; they were not supposed to wear certain colors; theycould not marry Muslim women;."[26]
Most of those laws were elaborations of basic laws concerning non-Muslims (dhimmis) in theQuran, which does not give much detail about the right conduct with non-Muslims, but it in principle recognises the religion of "People of the Book" (Jews, Christians and sometimes others as well) and securing a separate tax from them that replaces thezakat, which is imposed upon Muslim subjects.
Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to the masses.[27] He noted:
"The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated the intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at the point of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases, worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply a complete turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came."[27]
The result, he points out, can be seen in the diversity of Muslim societies today, with varying manifestations and practices of Islam.
Conversion to Islam also came about as a result of the breakdown of historically-religiously organized societies: with the weakening of many churches, for example, and the favouring of Islam and the migration of substantial Muslim Turkish populations into the areas of Anatolia and the Balkans, the "social and cultural relevance of Islam" were enhanced and a large number of peoples were converted. This worked better in some areas (Anatolia) and less in others (such as the Balkans in which "the spread of Islam was limited by the vitality of the Christian churches".)[24]
During the Abbasid period, economic hardships, social disorder, and pressure from Muslim attackers, led to the mass conversion ofSamaritans to Islam.[28]
Along with the religion of Islam, the Arabic language, Arabic numerals and Arab customs spread throughout the empire. A sense of unity grew among many though not all provinces and gradually formed the consciousness of a broadly Arab-Islamic population. What was recognizably an Islamic world had emerged by the end of the 10th century.[29] Throughout the period, as well as in the following centuries, divisions occurred between Persians and Arabs, and Sunnis and Shias, and unrest in provinces empowered local rulers at times.[26]
The expansion of Islam continued in the wake ofTurkic conquests ofAsia Minor, theBalkans and theIndian subcontinent.[22] The earlier period also saw the acceleration in the rate of conversions in the Muslim heartland, and in the wake of the conquests, the newly-conquered regions retained significant non-Muslim populations. That was contrast to the regions in which the boundaries of the Muslim world contracted, such as theEmirate of Sicily (Italy) andAl Andalus (Spain and Portugal), where Muslim populations were expelled or forced toChristianize in short order.[22] The latter period of that phase was marked by theMongol invasion (particularly theSiege of Baghdad in 1258) and, after an initial period of persecution, the conversion of those conquerors to Islam.
TheOttoman Empire defended its frontiers initially against threats from several sides: theSafavids in the east, theByzantine Empire in the north until it vanished with theConquest of Constantinople in 1453, and the greatCatholic powers from theMediterranean Sea: Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and Venice with its eastern Mediterranean colonies.
Later, the Ottoman Empire set on to conquer territories from these rivals:Cyprus and otherGreek islands (exceptCrete) were lost byVenice to the Ottomans, and the latter conquered territory up to theDanube basin as far asHungary. Crete was conquered during the 17th century, but the Ottomans lost Hungary to theHoly Roman Empire, and other parts of Eastern Europe, which ended with theTreaty of Carlowitz in 1699.[30]
The Ottoman sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922 and thecaliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.[31]
Islam has continued to spread through commerce and migrations, especially in Southeast Asia, America and Europe.[22]
Modern day Islamization appears to be a return of the individual to Muslim values, communities, and dress codes, and a strengthened community.[32]
Another development is that of transnational Islam, elaborated upon by the French Islam researchersGilles Kepel andOlivier Roy. It includes a feeling of a "growing universalistic Islamic identity" as often shared by Muslim immigrants and their children who live in non-Muslim countries:
The increased integration of world societies as a result of enhanced communications, media, travel, and migration makes meaningful the concept of a single Islam practiced everywhere in similar ways, and an Islam which transcends national and ethnic customs.[33]
This does not necessarily imply political or social organizations:
Global Muslim identity does not necessarily or even usually imply organized group action. Even though Muslims recognize a global affiliation, the real heart of Muslim religious life remains outside politics—in local associations for worship, discussion, mutual aid, education, charity, and other communal activities.[33]
A third development is the growth and elaboration of transnational military organizations. The 1980s and 90s, with several major conflicts in theMiddle East, including theArab–Israeli conflict,Afghanistan in the 1980s and 2001, and the three Gulf Wars (1980–88,1990–91,2003–2011) were catalysts of a growing internationalization of local conflicts.[citation needed] Figures such asOsama bin Laden andAbdallah Azzam have been crucial in these developments, as much as domestic and world politics.[33]
Muslim Arab expansion in the first centuries afterMuhammad's death soon established dynasties inNorth Africa,West Africa, to theMiddle East, and south toSomalia by theCompanions of the Prophet, most notably theRashidun Caliphate and military advents ofKhalid Bin Walid,Amr ibn al-As, andSa'd ibn Abi Waqqas. The historic process of Islamization was complex and involved merging Islamic practices with local customs. This process took place over several centuries. Some scholars reject the stereotype that this process was initially "spread by the sword" or forced conversions.[34]
There are a number of historians who see the rule of the Umayyads as responsible for setting up the "dhimmah" to increase taxes from thedhimmis to benefit the Arab Muslim community financially and to discourage conversion.[35] Islam was initially associated with the Arabs' ethnic identity and required formal association with anArab tribe and the adoption of the client status ofmawali.[35] Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier since that deprived the provinces of revenues from the tax on non-Muslims. An enfranchisement was experienced by themawali during theAbbasid period, and a shift was made in the political conception from that of a primarily-Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire.[36] Around 930 a law was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire to be Muslims.[35] Both periods were also marked by significant migrations of Arab tribes outwards from theArabian Peninsula into the new territories.[36]
Richard Bulliet's "conversion curve" shows a relatively low rate of conversion of non-Arab subjects during the Arab centricUmayyad period of 10%, in contrast with estimates for the more politically-multiculturalAbbasid period, which saw the Muslim population grow from around 40% in the mid-9th century, with almost the entire population being converted by the end of the 11th century.[36] That theory does not explain the continuing existence of large minorities of Christians during the Abbasids.[original research?] Other estimates suggest that Muslims were not a majority in Egypt until the mid-10th century and in the Fertile Crescent until 1100. What is now Syria may have had a Christian majority until the Mongol invasions of the 13th century.[citation needed]
AtMecca,Muhammad is said to have received repeated embassies from various tribes.[37]
Like their Byzantine and late Sasanian predecessors, the Marwanid caliphs of theUmayyad dynasty nominally ruled the various religious communities but allowed the communities' own appointed or elected officials to administer most internal affairs. Yet the Marwanids also depended heavily on the help of non-Arab administrative personnel and on administrative practices (e.g., a set of government bureaus). As the conquests slowed and the isolation of the fighters (muqatilah) became less necessary, it became increasingly difficult to keep Arabs garrisoned. As the tribal links that had so dominated Umayyad politics began to break down, the significance of tying non-Arab converts to Arab tribes as clients was diluted; moreover, the number of non-Muslims seeking to join the ummah was already becoming too large for this process to work effectively.
TheSiege of Jerusalem (636–637) by the forces of theRashidun caliphUmar against the Byzantines began in November 636. For four months, the siege continued. Ultimately, theGreek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem,Sophronius, an ethnic Arab,[38][page needed] agreed to surrender Jerusalem to Umar in person. The caliph, then inMedina, agreed to these terms and travelled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637.
Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Umar, known asUmar's Assurance, granting Christians religious freedom in exchange forjizya, a tax paid by conquered non-Muslims, known asdhimmis. Under Muslim rule, the Jewish and Christian populations of Jerusalem in this period enjoyed theusual tolerance given to non-Muslim theists.[39][40]
Having accepted the surrender, Umar then entered Jerusalem with Sophronius, "and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious antiquities".[41] When the hour for his prayer came, Umar was in theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, but refused to pray there, lest in the future Muslims should use that as an excuse to break the treaty and confiscate the church. TheMosque of Umar, opposite the doors of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, with the tall minaret, is known as the place to which he retired for his prayer.
BishopArculf, whose account of his seventh-century pilgrimage to theHoly Land titledDe locis sanctis was transcribed by the monkAdomnán, described the reasonably pleasant living conditions of Christians in Palestine during the first period of Muslim rule. The caliphs of Damascus (661–750) were tolerant princes who generally maintained good relations with their Christian subjects. Many Christians, such asJohn of Damascus, held important offices in their court. The Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad (753–1242) were also tolerant of Christians while they ruled Syria. Harun Abu Jaʻfar (786–809) sent the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre toCharlemagne, who built ahospice for Latin pilgrims near the shrine.[39]
Rival dynasties and revolutions led to the eventual disunion of the Muslim world. In the ninth century, Palestine was conquered by theFatimid Caliphate, whose capital wasCairo. Palestine once again became a battleground as the various enemies of the Fatimids counterattacked. At the same time, the Byzantines continued to attempt to regain their lost territories, including Jerusalem. Christians in Jerusalem who sided with the Byzantines were put to death for high treason by the rulingShi'a Muslims. Inc. 969, the patriarch of Jerusalem,John VII, was executed for treasonous correspondence with the Byzantines.
As Jerusalem grew in importance to Muslims and pilgrimages increased, tolerance for other religions declined. Christians were persecuted and churches destroyed. The sixth Fatimid caliph,al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (996–1021), who was believed to be "God made manifest" by his most zealous Shi'a followers, now known as theDruze, destroyed the Holy Sepulchre in 1009. This powerful provocation helped ignite the flame of fury that led to theFirst Crusade.[39] The dynasty was later overtaken bySaladin of theAyyubid dynasty.
InEgypt, conversion to Islam was initially considerably slower than in other areas such as Mesopotamia or Khurasan, with Muslims not thought to have become the majority until around the fourteenth century.[43]In the initial invasion, the victorious Muslims granted religious freedom to the Christian community inAlexandria, and the Alexandrians quickly recalled their exiledmonophysite patriarch to rule over them, subject only to the ultimate political authority of the conquerors. In such a fashion the city persisted as a religious community under an Arab Muslim domination more welcome and more tolerant than that of Byzantium.[44] (Other sources question how much the native population welcomed the conquering Muslims.)[45]
Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invadedTunisia from 647 to 648 andMorocco in 682 in the course of their drive to expand the power of Islam.[46] In 670, the Arab general and conquerorUqba ibn Nafi established the city ofKairouan (in Tunisia) and the Great Mosque (also known as theMosque of Uqba),[47] which is the ancestor of all the mosques of the western Islamic world.[42]
The Arabs drew heavily onBerbers for troops in theMuslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, which began in 711. No previous conqueror had tried to assimilate the Berbers, but the Arabs quicklyconverted them and enlisted their aid in further conquests. Without their help, for example,Andalusia could never have been incorporated into the Islamic empire. At first, only Berbers nearer the coast were involved, but by the 11th century, Muslim affiliation had begun to spread far into theSahara andSahel.[48]
The conventional historical view is that theconquest of North Africa by the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate during 647–709 CE effectively ended Catholicism in Africa for several centuries.[49] However, new[as of?] scholarship has appeared that provides greater nuance and detail on the conversion of the Christian inhabitants to Islam.[citation needed] A Christian community is recorded in 1114 in Qal'a in central Algeria. There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 CE to the tombs of Catholic saints outside the city of Carthage, as well as of religious contacts with Christians in Arab Spain. In addition, the calendar reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated among the indigenous Christians of Tunis, which would not have been possible without contact with Rome.
During the reign ofUmar II, the governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to have won the Berbers to Islam through his just administration. Other notable early Muslim missionaries includeAbdallah ibn Yasin, who founded a movement that led thousands of Berbers to accept Islam.[50]
The history of commercial and intellectual contact between the inhabitants of theSomalia and theArabian Peninsula may help explain theSomali people's connection withMuhammad. The early Muslims fled to the port city ofZeila in modern-daySomaliland to seek protection from the Quraysh at the court of theAksumite Emperor in present-dayEthiopia. Some of the Muslims granted protection are said to have settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had then all adoptedIslam, and the major trading routes in theMediterranean and theRed Sea came under the sway of theMuslim Caliphs. Through trade, Islam spread among the Somali population in coastal cities. Instability in the Arabian Peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.[51]
On the east coast of Africa, where Arab mariners had for many years journeyed to trade,mainly in slaves, Arabs founded permanent colonies on the offshore islands, especially onZanzibar, in the 9th and 10th centuries. From there, Arab trade routes into the interior of Africa helped the slow acceptance of Islam.
By the 10th century, theKilwa Sultanate was founded byAli ibn al-Hassan Shirazi (one of seven sons of a ruler ofShiraz, Persia, his mother was anAbyssinianslave girl). Upon his father's death, Ali was driven out of his inheritance by his brothers. His successors would rule the most powerful ofsultanates on theSwahili coast. During the peak of its expansion, the Kilwa Sultanate stretched fromInhambane in the south toMalindi in the north. The 13th-century Muslim travellerIbn Battuta noted that the great mosque ofKilwa Kisiwani was built ofcoral stone (the only such structure in the world).
In the 20th century, Islam grew in Africa through both births and conversions. The number of Muslims in Africa grew from 34.5 million in 1900 to 315 million in 2000, rising from roughly 20% to 40% of Africa's total population.[52] However, in the same time period, the number of Christians also grew in Africa, from 8.7 million in 1900 to 346 million in 2000, surpassing both the total population as well as the growth rate of Islam on the continent.[52][53]
The spread of Islam in Africa began in the 7th to 9th centuries, initially brought to North Africa under theUmayyad dynasty. Extensive trade networks throughout North and West Africa created a medium through which Islam spread peacefully, initially through the merchant class. By sharing a common religion and a common transliteration (Arabic), traders showed greater willingness to trust, and therefore invest, in one another.[54] Moreover, toward the 19th century, the northernNigeria-basedSokoto Caliphate, led byUsman dan Fodio, exerted considerable efforts in the spread of Islam.[50]
It used to be argued thatZoroastrianism quickly collapsed in the wake of theIslamic conquest of Persia due to its intimate ties to theSassanid state structure.[7] The older historiographical model posited a rapid collapse of Zoroastrianism following the Islamic conquest of Persia (632–654 CE), attributing its downfall to its close identification with the Sassanid state. As the Sassanid Empire fell, so too—this view held—did its state religion.[7] These trends show a shift away from the state religion that troubled Zoroastrian authorities and persisted after the Arab conquest. They were also shaped by Arab tribes migrating into the region during the Abbasid era.[55][56]
While there were cases of en masse conversions to Islam, such as the Sassanid army division at Hamra, which had converted before pivotal battles (e.g., theBattle of al-Qādisiyyah), conversion was fastest inurban areas where Arab forces were garrisoned, slowly leading to Zoroastrianism becoming associated with rural areas.[57][needs independent confirmation][7] Still, at the end of the Umayyad period, the Muslim community was only a minority in the region.
During the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century, Islam spread as far as theNorth Caucasus in areas (notablyDagestan) under Sassanid rule.[58] In the coming centuries, relatively large parts of theCaucasus were Islamicized, while the majority of its population would remain adherents of local pagan traditions (e.g., theAdyghe Xabze of theCircassians) or Christianity (notably Armenia and Georgia) for centuries. By the 16th century, most of the populations of what became Iran andAzerbaijan had adopted Shia Islam through theconversion policies of the Safavids.[59]
Islam was readily accepted by Zoroastrians who were employed in industrial and artisan positions because, according to Zoroastrian purity law, such occupations that involved defiling fire made them impure.[50] Moreover, Muslim missionaries did not encounter difficulty in explaining Islamic tenets to Zoroastrians, as there were many similarities between the faiths. According toThomas Walker Arnold, the Zoroastrian Persian would easily translateAhura Mazda andAhriman intoAllah andIblis.[50] At times, Muslim leaders, in their effort to win converts, encouraged attendance at Muslim prayer with promises of money and allowed theQuran to be recited in thePersian language instead of Arabic so that it would be intelligible to all.[50]
Robert G. Hoyland argues that the missionary efforts of the relatively small number of Arab conquerors in Persian lands led to "much interaction and assimilation" between rulers and the ruled, and to descendants of the conquerors adapting the Persian language and Persian festivals and culture (Persian being the language of modern-day Iran, while Arabic is spoken by its neighbors to the west).[60]
A number of the inhabitants ofAfghanistan accepted Islam throughUmayyad missionary efforts, particularly under the reign ofHisham ibn Abd al-Malik andUmar ibn Abdul Aziz.[61] Later, starting from the 9th century, theSamanids, whose roots stemmed from Zoroastrian theocratic nobility, propagatedSunni Islam and Islamo-Persian culture deep into the heart of Central Asia. The population within its areas began firmly accepting Islam in significant numbers, notably inTaraz, now in modern-dayKazakhstan. The first complete translation of the Quran intoPersian occurred during the reign of the Samanids in the 9th century. According to historians, through the zealous missionary work of the Samanid rulers, as many as 30,000 tents ofTurkish people came to profess Islam, and later, under theGhaznavids, the number rose to more than 55,000 (under theHanafi school of thought).[62] After theSaffarid dynasty and Samanids, theGhaznavids re-conquered Transoxania and invaded theIndian subcontinent in the 11th century. This was followed by the powerfulGhurid dynasty andTimurid dynasty, who further expanded Islam's culture and theTimurid Renaissance, reaching as far asBengal.
Main articles:Arab-Byzantine Wars,Byzantine-Seljuq wars,Byzantine-Ottoman Wars.
Islamic influence first became felt in theIndian subcontinent during the early 7th century with the arrival of Arab traders. Arab traders used to visit theMalabar region, which served as a link between them and the ports ofSouth East Asia for trade, even before Islam had been established in Arabia. According to Historians Elliot and Dowson in their bookThe History of India as told by its own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629 CE, purportedly at the behest of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 571–632) inKodungallur, in the district ofThrissur, Kerala, byMalik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, Muslims are calledMappila.
InBengal, Arab merchants helped found thePort of Chittagong. EarlySufi missionaries settled in the region as early as the 8th century.[63][64]
H. G. Rawlinson, in his bookAncient and Medieval History of India,[65] claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century. This fact is corroborated by J. Sturrock in hisSouth Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals,[66] as well as by Haridas Bhattacharya in his 1956Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.[67] Arab merchants and traders became carriers of the new religion and propagated it wherever they went.[68] It was, however, the subsequent expansion of theMuslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent over the next millennia that established Islam in the region.
Embedded within these lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition andHinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, failing the project to Islamicize the Indian subcontinent is highly embroiled with the politics of thepartition andcommunalism in India. Considerable controversy exists as to how conversion to Islam came about in the Indian subcontinent.[69] These are typically represented by the following schools of thought:[69]
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Muslim missionaries played a key role in the spread of Islam in India, with some missionaries even assuming roles as merchants or traders. For example, in the 9th century, theIsmailis sent missionaries across Asia in all directions under various guises, often as traders, Sufis, and merchants. Ismailis were instructed to speak to potential converts in their own language. Some Ismaili missionaries traveled to India and worked to make their religion acceptable to Hindus. For instance, they representedAli as the tenth avatar ofVishnu and wrote hymns and amahdipurana in their effort to win converts.[50] At other times, converts were won in conjunction with the propagation efforts of rulers. According toIbn Batuta, theKhalji dynasty encouraged conversion to Islam by making it customary to present converts to the Sultan, who would place a robe on them and award them gold bracelets.[72] During theDelhi Sultanate rulerIkhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji's control ofBengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success in terms of the number of converts to Islam.[73]
TheMughal Empire, founded byBabur, a direct descendant ofTimur andGenghis Khan, was able to conquer almost the entirety ofSouth Asia. Although religious tolerance was seen during the rule of emperorAkbar's, the reign under emperorAurangzeb witnessed the full establishment of Islamicsharia and the re-introduction of thejizya (a special tax imposed upon non-Muslims) through the compilation of theFatawa-e-Alamgiri.[74][75] The Mughals, already suffering a gradual decline in the early 18th century, wereinvaded by theAfsharid dynasty rulerNader Shah.[76] The Mughal decline provided opportunities for theMaratha Empire,Sikh Empire,Mysore Kingdom,Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad, andNizams of Hyderabad to exercise control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent.[77] Eventually, after numerous wars sapped its strength, the Mughal Empire was broken into smaller powers like ShiaNawab of Bengal, theNawab of Awadh, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Kingdom of Mysore, which became the major Asian economic and military power on theIndian subcontinent.[citation needed]
Even before Islam was established amongst Indonesian communities, Muslim sailors and traders had often visited the shores of modern Indonesia, most of these early sailors and merchants arrived from theAbbasid Caliphate's newly established ports ofBasra andDebal, many of the earliest Muslim accounts of the region note the presence of animals, such asorangutans andrhinoceroses, and valuablespice trade commodities likecloves,nutmeg,galangal, andcoconut.[78][full citation needed]
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Islam first came to Southeast Asia through Muslim traders along the main trade route between Asia and theFar East, then throughSufi orders, and finally consolidated through the expansion of the territories of converted rulers and their communities.[79] The first communities arose in NorthernSumatra (Aceh) and theMalacca's remained a stronghold of Islam from where it was propagated along the trade routes in the region.[79] There is no clear indication of when Islam first came to the region, the first Muslim gravestone markings year 1082.[80]
WhenMarco Polo visited the area in 1292, he noted that the urban port state ofPeureulak was Muslim.[80] Chinese sources record the presence of a Muslim delegation to the emperor from the Kingdom ofPasai in 1282.[79] Other accounts provide evidence of Muslim communities present in theMelayu Kingdom during the same time period, while others record the presence of Muslim Chinese traders from provinces such asFujian.[80] The spread of Islam generally followed the trade routes east through the primarilyBuddhist region, and a half century later, in the Malaccas, the first dynasty arose as theSultanate of Malacca at the far end of the archipelago, following the conversion ofParameswara Dewa Shah to Islam and the adoption of the name Muhammad Iskandar Shah after his marriage to a daughter of the ruler of Pasai.[79][80]
In 1380, Sufi orders carried Islam from here on toMindanao.[citation needed]Java was the seat of the primary kingdom of the region, theMajapahit Empire, which was ruled by aHindu dynasty. As commerce grew in the region with the rest of the Muslim world, Islamic influence extended to the court even as the empire's political power waned, and so by the timeRaja Kertawijaya converted in 1475 at the hands of Sufisheikh Rahmat, the Sultanate was already of a Muslim character. InVietnam, theCham people were proselytized through contact with traders and missionaries fromKelantan.
Another driving force for the change of the ruling class in the region was the concept among the increasing Muslim communities of the region when ruling dynasties to attempt to forge such ties of kinship by marriage.[citation needed] By the time thecolonial powers and theirmissionaries arrived in the 17th century, the region up toNew Guinea was overwhelmingly Muslim withanimist minorities.[80]
In the mid-7th century CE, following theMuslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated areas that wouldlater become part of European Russia.[81] A centuries later example that can be counted amongst the earliest introductions of Islam intoEastern Europe came about through the work of an early 11th-century Muslim prisoner whom theByzantines captured during one of their wars against Muslims. The Muslim prisoner was brought into the territory of thePechenegs, where he taught and converted individuals to Islam.[82] Little is known about the timeline of the Islamization ofInner Asia and of theTurkic peoples who lay beyond the bounds of the caliphate. Around the 7th and 8th centuries, some states of Turkic peoples existed—like theKhazars and theTurgesh, which fought against the caliphate in order to stopArabization and Islamization in Asia. From the 9th century onwards, the Turks (at least individually, if not yet through adoption by their states) began to convert to Islam. Histories merely note the fact of pre-MongolCentral Asia's Islamization.[83] TheBulgars of the Volga (to whom the modernVolga Tatars trace their Islamic roots) adopted Islam by the 10th century.[83] underAlmış. When theFranciscanfriarWilliam of Rubruck visited the encampment ofBatu Khan of theGolden Horde, who had recently (in the 1240s) completed theMongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria, he noted "I wonder what devil carried the law of Machomet there".[83]
Another contemporary institution identified as Muslim, theQarakhanid dynasty of theKara-Khanid Khanate, operated much further east,[83] established byKarluks who became Islamized after converting underSultan Satuq Bughra Khan in the mid-10th century. However, the modern-day history of the Islamization of the region—or rather a conscious affiliation with Islam—dates to the reign of theulus of the son ofGenghis Khan,Jochi, who founded the Golden Horde,[84] which operated from the 1240s to 1502.Kazakhs,Uzbeks and some Muslim populations of theRussian Federation trace their Islamic roots to the Golden Horde[83] and whileBerke Khan became the first Mongol monarch to adopt Islam officially and even to oppose his relativeHulagu Khan[83] in the defense ofJerusalem at theBattle of Ain Jalut (1263), only much later did the change became pivotal when the Mongols converteden masse[85] when a century laterUzbeg Khan (lived 1282–1341) converted - reportedly at the hands of theSufiSaint Baba Tukles.[86]
Some Mongolian tribes adopted Islam. Following the brutalMongol invasion of Central Asia underHulagu Khan and after theBattle of Baghdad (1258), Mongol rule extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in Asia. The Mongols destroyed the caliphate andpersecuted Islam, replacing it withBuddhism as the official state religion.[85] In 1295, however, the new khan of theIlkhanate,Ghazan, converted to Islam, and two decades later the Golden Horde under Uzbeg Khan (r. 1313–1341– ) followed suit.[85] The Mongols had been religiously and culturally conquered; this absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis[85] that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and theIndian subcontinent.
In the 1330s, the Mongol ruler of theChagatai Khanate (in Central Asia) converted to Islam, causing the eastern part of his realm (calledMoghulistan) to rebel.[87] However, during the next three centuries theseBuddhist,shamanistic andChristian Turkic and Mongol nomads of theKazakh Steppe andXinjiang would also convert at the hands of competingSufi orders from both east and west of thePamirs.[87] TheNaqshbandis are the most prominent of these orders, especially inKashgaria, where the western Chagatai Khan was also a disciple of the order.[87]
Muslims of Central Asian origin played a major role in theMongol conquest of China.Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Southwest China, became Yuan Governor ofYunnan in 1274. A distinct Muslim community, thePanthays, was established in the region by the late 13th century.
Tariq ibn Ziyad was aMuslim general who led the Islamic conquest ofVisigothicHispania during 711–718 He is considered to be one of the most important military commanders inIberian history. The name "Gibraltar" is theSpanish derivation of theArabic nameJabal Tāriq (جبل طارق) ('mountain of Tariq'), named after him.
There are accounts of thetrade connections between the Muslims and theRus, apparently Vikings who made their way towards theBlack Sea throughCentral Russia. On his way to Volga Bulgaria,Ibn Fadlan brought detailed reports of the Rus, claiming that some had converted to Islam.
According to the historianYaqut al-Hamawi, theBöszörmény (Izmaelita orIsmaili-Nizari) denomination of the Muslims who lived in theKingdom of Hungary in the 10th to 13th centuries, was employed as mercenaries by the kings of Hungary.
The history of Arab and Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula is among the most studied periods of European history. For centuries after the Arab conquest, European accounts of Arab rule in Iberia were negative. European perspectives began to change with theProtestant Reformation, which led to new descriptions of the period of Islamic rule in Spain as a "golden age" (primarily in response to Spain's militant Roman Catholicism after 1500).[citation needed]
The tide of Arab expansion after 630 rolled across North Africa, reaching Ceuta in present-day Morocco. Their arrival coincided with a period of political weakness in the three-centuries-old kingdom established in the Iberian peninsula by the GermanicVisigoths, who had taken over the region after seven centuries of Roman rule. Seizing the opportunity, an Arab-led (but mostly Berber) army invaded in 711 and, by 720, had conquered the southern and central regions of the peninsula. The Arab expansion pushed over the mountains into southern France, and for a short period, Arabs controlled the old Visigothic province of Septimania (centered on present-day Narbonne). The Arab Caliphate was pushed back byCharles Martel (Frankish Mayor of the Palace) at Poitiers, and Christian armies began pushing southwards over the mountains, untilCharlemagne established the Spanish March in 801 (which stretched from Barcelona to present-day Navarre).
A major development in the history of Muslim Spain was the dynastic change in 750 in the Arab Caliphate, when an Umayyad Prince escaped the slaughter of his family in Damascus, fled to Cordoba in Spain, and created a new Islamic state in the area. This was the start of a distinctly Spanish Muslim society, where large Christian and Jewish populations coexisted with an increasing percentage of Muslims. There are many stories of descendants of Visigothic chieftains and Roman counts whose families converted to Islam during this period. The at-first small Muslim elite continued to grow with converts, and with a few exceptions, rulers in Islamic Spain allowed Christians and Jews the right specified in the Koran to practice their own religions, though non-Muslims suffered from political and taxation inequities. The net result was, in those areas of Spain where Muslim rule lasted the longest, the creation of a society that was mostly Arabic-speaking because of the assimilation of native inhabitants, a process in some ways similar to the assimilation, many years later, of millions of immigrants to the United States into English-speaking culture. As the descendants of Visigoths and Hispano-Romans concentrated in the north of the peninsula, in the kingdoms of Asturias-León, Navarre, and Aragon, they launched a long campaign known as the 'Reconquista', which began with the Christian armies' victory atCovadonga in 722. Military campaigns continued without pause. In 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile took back Toledo. In 1212, the crucialBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa meant the recovery of the bulk of the peninsula for the Christian kingdoms. In 1238, James I of Aragon took Valencia. In 1236, the ancient Roman city ofCordoba was reconquered by Ferdinand III of Castile, and in 1248, the city ofSeville was also reconquered. The famous medieval epic poem 'Cantar de Mio Cid' narrates the life and deeds of this hero during theReconquista.
The Islamic state centered in Cordoba had splintered into many smaller kingdoms (the so-called taifas). While Muslim Spain was fragmenting, the Christian kingdoms grew larger and stronger, and the balance of power shifted against the 'Taifa' kingdoms. The last Muslim kingdom of Granada in the south was finally taken in 1492 by Queen Isabelle of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. In 1499, the remaining Muslim inhabitants were ordered to convert or leave (at the same time, the Jews were expelled). Poorer Muslims (Moriscos) who could not afford to leave ended up converting to Catholic Christianity and hiding their Muslim practices, hiding from the Spanish Inquisition, until their presence was finally extinguished.
In Balkan history, writing on conversion to Islam has been, and remains, a highly charged political issue. It is intrinsically linked to the issues of national identity formation and rival territorial claims among the Balkan states. The generally accepted nationalist discourse of the current Balkan historiography defines all forms of Islamization as results of the Ottoman government's centrally organized policy of conversion ordawah. The truth is that Islamization in each Balkan country took place over many centuries, and its nature and phase were determined not by the Ottoman government but by the specific conditions of each locality. Ottoman conquests were initially military and economic enterprises, and religious conversions were not their primary objective. True, the statements surrounding victories all celebrated the incorporation of territory into Muslim domains, but the actual Ottoman focus was on taxation and making the realms productive, and a religious campaign would have disrupted that economic objective.
Ottoman Islamic standards of toleration allowed for autonomous "nations" (millets) in the Empire, under their own personal law and under the rule of their own religious leaders. As a result, vast areas of the Balkans remained predominantly Christian during Ottoman rule. In fact, the Eastern Orthodox Churches held a higher position in the Ottoman Empire, mainly because the Patriarch resided in Istanbul and served as an officer of the Ottoman Empire. In contrast, Roman Catholics, while tolerated, were suspected of loyalty to a foreign power (the Papacy). It is no surprise that the Roman Catholic areas of Bosnia, Kosovo, and northern Albania ended up with more substantial conversions to Islam. The Austrians' defeat of the Ottomans in 1699 resulted in their loss of Hungary and present-day Croatia. The remaining Muslim converts in both elected to leave the "lands of unbelief" and moved to territory still under Ottoman rule. Around this point in time, new European ideas of romantic nationalism started to seep into the Empire and provided the intellectual foundation for new nationalistic ideologies and the reinforcement of the self-image of many Christian groups as subjugated peoples.
As a rule, theOttomans did not require followers of Greek Orthodoxy to becomeMuslims, although many did so in order to avert the socioeconomic hardships of Ottoman rule.[88] One by one, the Balkan nationalities asserted their independence from the Empire, and frequently the presence of members of the same ethnicity who had converted to Islam presented a problem from the point of view of the now dominant new national ideology, which narrowly defined the nation as members of the local dominant Orthodox Christian denomination.[89] Some Muslims in the Balkans chose to leave, whilemany others were forcefully expelled to what was left of the Ottoman Empire.[89] This demographic transition can be illustrated by the decrease in the number of mosques inBelgrade, from over 70 in 1750 (before Serbian independence in 1815), to only three in 1850.
Since the 1960s, many Muslims have migrated to Western Europe. They have arrived as immigrants,guest workers, asylum seekers, or as part offamily reunification. As a result, theMuslim population in Europe has steadily risen.
APew Forum study, published in January 2011, forecast an increase in the proportion of Muslims in the European population from 6% in 2010 to 8% in 2030.[90]
Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)The process of "Islamization" was a complex and creative fusion of Islamic practices and doctrines with local customs that were considered to be sound from the perspective of developing Islamic jurisprudence. As historian Richard Bulliet has demonstrated based on the evidence of early biographical compendia, in most cases this process took centuries, so that the stereotype of Islam being initially spread by the "sword" and by forced conversions is a false representation of this complex phenomenon
(..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but werelater incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arabconquest of the Iranian Sassanian Empire.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)(..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arabconquest of the Iranian Sassanian Empire.
