 Gaki zōshi 餓鬼草紙 "Scroll of Hungry Ghosts", circa 12th century | |
| Creature information | |
|---|---|
| Grouping | Legendary creature |
| Sub grouping | Nocturnal,revenant |
| Similar entities | Krasue andKalag |
| Folklore | Chinese Buddhism,Japanese Buddhism,Chinese traditional religion |
| Origin | |
| Country | China,Japan |
| Region | East Asia,South Asia,Southeast Asia |
| Part ofa series on |
| Chinese folk religion |
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Hungry ghost is a term inBuddhism andChinese traditional religion, representing beings who are driven by intense emotional needs in ananimalistic way.The termChinese:餓鬼;pinyin:èguǐ;lit. 'hungry ghost' is the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit termpreta[1] inBuddhism."Hungry ghosts" play a role inChinese Buddhism,Japanese Buddhism,Taoism, and inChinese folk religion.The term is not to be confused with the generic term for "ghost" or damnation,鬼;guǐ (i.e. the residual spirit of a deceased ancestor). The understanding is that people first become a regular ghost when they die[2] and then slowly weaken and eventually die a second time.[3][4] The hungry ghosts, along with animals and hell beings, consists of the three realms of existence no one desires.[5][6] In these realms it is extremely difficult to be reborn in a better realm (i.e. the realm of humans,asura ordeva) because it is nearly impossible to perform deeds that cultivate good karma.[7]
With the rise in popularity ofBuddhism, the idea thatsouls would live in space until reincarnation became popular.[4] In theTaoist tradition, it is believed that hungry ghosts can arise from people whose deaths have been violent or unhappy. Both Buddhism[4] and Taoism[8] share the idea that hungry ghosts can emerge from neglect or desertion of ancestors. According to theHuayen Sutra evil deeds will cause a soul to be reborn in one of six different realms.[9] The highest degree of evil deed will cause a soul to be reborn as a denizen ofhell, a lower degree of evil will cause a soul to be reborn as an animal, and the lowest degree will cause a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost.[10] According to the tradition, evil deeds that lead to becoming a hungry ghost are killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Desire, greed, anger and ignorance are all factors in causing a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost because they are motives for people to perform evil deeds.[2] The biggest factor is greed as hungry ghosts are ever discontent and anguished because they are unable to satisfy their feelings of greed.[11]
Some traditions imagine hungry ghosts living inside the bowels of earth or they live in the midst of humans but go unnoticed by those around them or they choose to distance themselves.[12]
There are many legends regarding the origin of hungry ghosts. It is likely that the idea of hungry ghosts originated from ancient Indian culture, where they were referred to asPreta.[citation needed]
In theBuddhist tradition, hungry ghosts appear in stories from theChuan-chi po-yuan ching ("Sutra of One Hundred Selected Legends") from the early third century.[13][page needed] Some examples of these stories are as follows:
Once, a rich man who travelled was sellingsugar-cane juice. One day, amonk came to his house in search of some juice to cure an illness. The man had to leave, so he instructed his wife to give the monk the drink in his absence. Instead of doing this, she secretly urinated in the monk's bowl, added sugar cane juice to it and gave it to the monk. The monk was not deceived; he poured out the bowl and left. When the wife died, she was reborn as a hungry ghost.[13][page needed]
Another such tale is of a man who was giving and kind. One day, he was about to leave his house when a monk came by begging. The man instructed his wife to give the monk some food. After the man left his house, his wife was overcome with greed. She took it upon herself to teach the monk a lesson, so she locked the monk in an empty room all day with no food. She was reborn as a hungry ghost for innumerable lifetimes.[13][page needed]
The legends often speak of hungry ghosts who, in a previous lifetime, were greedy women who refused to give away food.[13][page needed] Other stories in the Buddhist tradition come from the "Sutra on Ghosts Questioning Maudgalyāyana" (鬼問目連經;Gui wen Mulian jing). One of the stories tells of a diviner who constantly misled people due to his own avarice, and thus, he was reborn as a hungry ghost.[14][page needed] Another story in "The Legend of Mu-lien Entering the City and Seeing Five Hundred Hungry Ghosts" is about five hundred men that were sons of elders of the city they lived in. When monks came begging to the city for food, the sons denied them because they thought the monks would keep coming back and eventually take all their food. After the sons died, they were reborn as hungry ghosts.[4][page needed]
TheAvadānaśataka is one of the earliest collections of stories about hungry ghosts and was compiled by a Buddhist monk from northwest India between the second and fourth centuries CE. The stories in this work may have functioned as a prescription for appropriate behaviour. The text is divided into ten "decades", the fifth decade being stories that concern hungry ghosts. This part of theAvadānaśataka recounts the bad thoughts and behavior the hungry ghosts have cultivated in their human existence which led them to the hungry ghost realm. The accumulation of malignancy or meanness is calledmātsarya.[15][16]
The notion ofmātsarya in this volume is explained to understand the logic of mātsarya's development, the actions it evokes, the suffering it causes and in which ways it can be eradicated. Therefore, it describes the causal chain (pratītyasamutpāda) that leads to the existence of a hungry ghost. At the end of nearly every story the phrase "Work hard to get rid of yourmātsarya!"[17] is repeated.[18]
InChina,Taiwan and otheroverseas Chinese communities, preta is translated asegui (Chinese: 餓鬼, lit: "hungry ghost"), which descends from theMiddle Chinese pronunciation ofngaH kjwɨjX. InChinese Buddhism, theegui dao (餓鬼道, lit: "Path of the Hungry Ghosts") is one of the six domains of thedesire realm of Buddhism.[19] Many Chinese Buddhist rituals performed throughout the year typically contain sections where the various types ofegui and spirits are summoned and provided nourishment in the form of food offerings and Buddhist teachings and precepts. Theoral tradition of Chineseancestral worship believes that the ghosts of the ancestors may be granted permission to return to the world of the living at a certain time of the year. If the spirits are hungry and not given sufficient offerings by their living relatives, they take what they can from the world.[20]
Afestival called theYulanpen Festival (simplified Chinese:盂兰盆;traditional Chinese:盂蘭盆;pinyin:Yúlánpén;lit. 'Ullambana') is held to honor theegui and food and drink is put out to satisfy their needs. The festival is celebrated during the seventh month of theChinese calendar. It also falls at the same time as a full moon, the new season, the fall harvest, the peak of monastic asceticism, the rebirth of ancestors, and the assembly of the local community.[14] According to tradition, during this month, the gates ofDiyu (hell) are opened up and theegui are free to roam the earth where they seek food and entertainment. Theseegui are believed to be ancestors of those who have forgotten to pay tribute to them after they died. They have long thin necks because they have not been fed by their families. Tradition states that families should offer prayers to their deceased relatives and burn "hell money". It is believed that "hell money" is a valid currency in the underworld and helps ghosts to live comfortably in the afterlife. People also burn other forms ofjoss paper such as paper houses, cars and televisions to please the ghosts.[21]
Families also pay tribute to other unknown wanderingegui so that these homeless souls do not intrude on their lives and bring misfortune. A big feast is held for theegui on the 15th day of the seventh month, where people bring samples of food and place them on the offering table to please theegui and ward off bad luck. Live shows are also put on and everyone is invited to attend. The first row of seats is always empty as this is where the ghosts are supposed to sit to better enjoy the live entertainment. The shows are always put on at night and at high volumes, so that the sound attracts and pleases theegui. These acts were better known as "Merry-making".[22]
Chinese Buddhist rituals that feature the feeding ofegui are commonly performed as part of regular temple services. A key example is theMengshan Shishi rite (蒙山施食,Méngshān Shīshí, lit: "Mengshan food bestowal"), which is commonly performed as part of thedaily evening liturgy in most Chinese Buddhist temples.[23][24]
Another key rite that is often performed is theYujia Yankou ritual (Chinese: 瑜伽燄口,pinyin:Yújiā Yànkǒu, lit: "Yoga Flaming-Mouth Food Bestowal"), also known as theYuqie Yankou ritual.[25] It is commonly performed during or at the end of regular religious temple events such as repentance rites (Chinese: 懺悔,pinyin:Chànhǔi),Buddha recitation retreats (Chinese: 佛七,pinyin:Fóqī), the dedication of a new monastic complex, gatherings for the transmission ofmonastic vows or theYulanpen Festival. During the ritual, one or more monks execute various esoteric and tantric practices, includingmaṇḍala offerings, recitation of esotericmantras, execution ofmudrās and visualization practices to deliver both physical nourishment (in the form of food offerings) as well as spiritual nourishment (in the form of Buddhist teachings and conferment of precepts) onegui and other hell-beings.[25] The ritual also combines features ofChinese operatic tradition (including a wide range of instrumental music as well as vocal performances such as solo deliveries, antiphonal and choral singing) as well as the recitation ofsūtras similar to other exotericMahāyāna rituals.[25] The ritual is typically open for attendance to the public, and especiallylay people, who participate as the audience and spectators.
During the ritual, various Buddhist figures such as theFive Tathāgatas,Guanyin,Zhunti andDizang are invoked to help empower the ritual space and offerings as well as other ritual functions.[25] Another key figure in the ritual is theegui kingMianran Dashi (Chinese: 面燃大士,pinyin: Miànrán Dàshì, lit: "Burning-Face Mahāsattva"), who is commonly regarded as a manifestation of theBodhisattvaGuanyin and who features prominently in the sūtra upon which the ritual was based on. During the climax of the ritual, the main performers of the rite toss the offerings into the ritual space before the main altar for the spirits, as well as to the audience of the rite.[25] Only vegetarian food offerings are allowed as Buddhist precepts promotecompassion for allsentient beings and forbid the taking of any life.[25] The Buddhist refuge vows as well as precepts are also conferred upon the spirits present at the ritual, and all merits generated from the rite are usuallydedicated to all sentient beings at the end of the rite.[25]
The chiefTaoistpriest of the town wears an ornate crown of five gold and red panels, a practice appropriated fromChinese Buddhism. This represented the five most powerful deities (TheJade Emperor,Lord Guan,Tu Di Gong,Mazu andXi Wangmu) according to Taoist beliefs. He is believed to become their voice on earth.[21] A sacrificial altar and a chair are built for a priest either at a street entrance or in front of the village. TheBodhisattvaDizang sits in front of the chair. Under the chair are plates of rice flour and peaches. Sitting on the altar are three spirit tablets and three funeral banners. After noon, sheep, pigs, chicken, fruits, and cakes are donated by families that are displayed on the altar. A priest will put a triangular paper banner of three colors with special characters on every sacrifice. After the music begins to play, the priest hits the bell to call theegui back to the table. He then throws the rice and peaches into the air in all directions to distribute them to theegui.[22] During the evening,incense is burnt in front of the doors of households. Incense stands for prosperity, the more incense burnt, the greater one's prosperity.[22] During the festival, shops are closed to leave the streets open for the ghosts. In the middle of each street stands an altar of incense with fresh fruit and sacrifices displayed on it. Behind the altar, monks will sing songs that it is believed only the ghosts can understand. This rite is calledshi ge'r, meaning "singing ghost songs".[22] Fifteen days after the feast, to make sure all the hungry ghosts find their way back tohell, people float lanterns on water and set them outside their houses. These lanterns are made by setting a lotus flower-shaped lantern on a piece of board.Egui are believed to have found their way back when the lanterns go out.[22]
There are many folk beliefs and taboos surrounding theYulanpen Festival. Spirits are thought to be dangerous, and can take many forms, including snakes, moths, birds, foxes, wolves, and tigers. Some can even use the guise of a beautiful man or woman to seduce and possess. One story refers to a ghost which takes the form of a pretty girl and seduces a young man until apriest intervenes and sends the spirit back to hell. It is believed thatpossession can cause illness and/or mental disorders.[26]
During the seventh month of theChinese calendar, children are advised (usually by an elder in the family) to be home before dark, and not to wander the streets at night for fear a ghost might possess them. Swimming is thought to be dangerous as well, as spirits are believed to have drowned people. People will generally avoid driving at night, for fear of a "collision", or spiritual offence, which is any event leading to illness or misfortune.[27][page needed] While "ghost" is a commonly used term throughout the year, many people use the phrase "backdoor god" or "good brother" instead during the 7th month, so as not to anger the ghosts. Another thing to avoid is sampling any of the food placed on the offering table, as doing this can result in "mysterious illness". Any person attending a show at indoor entertainment venues (getai) will notice the first row of chairs is left empty. These seats are reserved for the spirits, and it is considered bad form to sit in them. After anoffering has been burnt for the spirits, stepping on or near the burnt area should be avoided, as it is considered an "opening" to the spirit world and touching it may cause the person to be possessed.[citation needed]
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Institutional roles |
History and overview |
InTibetan Buddhism, Hungry Ghosts (Standard Tibetan:ཡི་དྭགས་,Wylie:yi dwags,Sanskrit:preta) have their own realm depicted on theBhavacakra and are represented as teardrop orpaisley-shaped with bloated stomachs and necks too thin to pass food so that attempting to eat is also incredibly painful. Some are described as having "mouths the size of a needle's eye and a stomach the size of a mountain". This is a metaphor for people futilely attempting to fulfill their illusory physical desires.
According to theHistory of Buddhism, as elements of Chinese Buddhism entered a dialogue with Indian Buddhism in theTibetan Plateau, this synthesis is evident in the compassion rendered in the form of blessed remains of food, etc., offered to thepretas in rites such asGanachakra.[citation needed]
InMahayana BuddhismChenrezig offers the hungry ghosts the nectar flowing from his fingers that relieves their suffering. This buddha helps the hungry ghosts as he is the manifestation of the Lotus Family that has the special ability to support those who suffer, in this case the hungry ghost realm that is filled with suffering. This nectar symbolises purification which is able to cleanse all negativities, karma, obscurations, and defilements.[28]
InJapanese Buddhism, the Hungry Ghosts are considered to have two variants: thegaki and thejikininki. Gaki (餓鬼) are the spirits ofjealous or greedy people who, as punishment for their mortal vices, have been cursed with an insatiable hunger for a particular substance or object. Traditionally, this is something repugnant or humiliating, such as humancorpses orfeces, though in more recent legends, it may be virtually anything, no matter how bizarre. Jikininki (食人鬼 "people-eating ghosts") are the spirits of greedy,selfish orimpious individuals who are cursed after death to seek out and eat human corpses. They do this at night, scavenging for newly dead bodies and food offerings left for the dead. They sometimes also loot the corpses they eat for valuables. Nevertheless, jikininki lament their condition and hate their repugnant cravings for dead human flesh.[citation needed] Japanese ghost-feeding rites, known assegaki, are also performed regularly by all Japanese Buddhist traditions.
The Hungry Ghosts Scroll kept at theKyoto National Museum depicts the world of the hungry ghosts and the suffering of these creatures, and contains tales of salvation of the ghosts. The whole scroll has been designated as National Treasure of Japan and it was possibly part of a set of scrolls depicting the six realms which was kept atSanjūsangen-dō.[29]
LaFleur comments that these depictions symbolise that hungry ghosts are not just hungry but they are constituted by their very hunger. Unlike mankind's impermanent hunger, for hungry ghosts "there is only an ongoing, alleviated gnawing of the stomach and parching of the throat." The body of the hungry ghost is important as it has a huge stomach and a throat as narrow as a needle which leaves the hungry ghost in the dilemma of always having appetite but no way to ever satisfy that hunger.[30] The hungry ghost depicted in art in medieval Japan were thought of as "consumer of fires" because they mistook fire for something edible in their constant strive to satisfy their hunger. This only makes their hunger worse, they start to emit fire from their mouths and start to consume even more fire.[31] LaFleur interprets that the art of hungry ghosts might have provided viewers of a look into the world they inhabit and which they normally do not see clearly. Therefore, the images might offer the insights that hungry ghosts interact with the world of humans from their world and that the human realm is oblivious to these beings affecting them.[32]
It is believed that thesoul contains elements of bothyin and yang. The yin is thegui, or demon part, and the yang is theshen, or spirit part. When death occurs, thegui should return to earth, and theshen to the grave or family shrine. If a ghost is neglected, it will become agui. Theshen, or ancestral spirit, watches over its descendants, and can bring good fortune if properly worshipped.[26]
Hungry ghosts are different from theghosts of Chinese which all people are believed to become after death.
According to theNyāyānusāriṇī, there are three main groups of hungry ghosts, each of which are divided into three sub-groups:[2][33][page needed]
Sixteen hungry ghosts are said to live inhell or in a region of hell. Unlike other hell dwellers, they can leave hell and wander. They look through garbage and human waste on the outskirts of human cities. They are said to be invisible during the daylight hours but visible at night. Some hungry ghosts can only eat corpses, or their food is burnt up in their mouths, sometimes they have a big belly and a neck as thin as a needle (this image is the basic one for hungry ghosts inAsian Buddhism).[9][page needed]
According to theSaddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra, there are thirty-six different types of hungry ghost.
The depictions and stories about hungry ghosts especially in the early Indian context can show the viewer a commentary about the "manual scavengers", members of the lowest caste in India. They are regarded as people whose bad stigma comes from their birth and the group they belong to. They represent a group of starving people who are wandering the outside of cities, are homeless and hungry. As most people have adopted an ingrained blindness to this underclass.[34][32]
Furthermore, the bodies of hungry ghosts bear similarities with humans who are deprived of food. This malnourishment causes a disorder known askwashiorkor that encompasses symptoms like stomach bloating from fluid retention, hair and tooth loss and dry and cracked skin. These people have skeletal like figures and big stomachs.[35]
Looking at these hungry ghosts and their figure one might interpret hungry ghosts as teachers. They do not teach the causes of karma like solitary buddhas, however, instead of words with their bodies.[36][37] Their whole body embodies suffering (dukkha) to such an extend that seeing them gives the viewer the chance to witness the truth ofdukkha.[38]
The realm of the hungry ghosts is just one above that of the beings innaraka, however, while the hungry ghosts are not directly in hell their body is constituted by a hunger that they cannot satisfy due to the nature of their bodies, having big bellies and the throat of a needle. Whereas the hell have walls that keep the beings in a permanent state of torture, the body of the hungry ghosts is like a hell because they cannot escape their bodies, free to wander the world at will.[39]
The influential Indian monkVasubandhu used hungry ghosts in his argumentation of theYogācāra concept that "everything in the three realms is nothing but appearance." He argues against theobjective reality of external objects (physical and non-physical) by asserting that the appearance of external objects is mind-dependent, as they happen to be different at specific times and places across different minds. Since different minds encounter the same objects differently, similar to dreams, these objects do not need to have a physical reality.
The author offers an example about a river perceived as clear by humans, but full of pus by hungry ghosts. Thus, the appearances of external objects across different minds is distinct. By that, the author establishes an argument for a lack of substantial reality among external objects.[40][41]
丁寧な暮らしをする餓鬼 ("The Hungry Ghost who leads a polite life"): This three volume work explores the life of an hungry ghost who, unlike others of their kind, is very compassionate and pure-hearted. They spend half a day grinding coffee beans in a mortar, folding plastic bags into triangles, sweeping up leaves, and so on.[42]
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