Southeast Asia was in theIndian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th century CE, whenHindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems. Kingdoms in the southeast coast of theIndian subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political relations withSoutheast Asian kingdoms inBurma,Bhutan,Thailand, theSunda Islands,Malay Peninsula,Philippines,Cambodia,Laos, andChampa. This led to theIndianisation andSanskritisation of Southeast Asia within theIndosphere, Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-BuddhistMandala (polities, city states and confederacies).[citation needed]
Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also includingAustroasiatic lingusitic influence onto early Indians.[2] However some scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, concluded that not only linguistic but there are also some cultural, and even political Austroasiatic influence on earlyIndian culture and traditions.India is seen as a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This distinctlyIndian cultural system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social construct and statehood ofSoutheast Asian regional polity, which rulers gained power and stability, transforming small chieftains into regional powers.[3]
Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, thePallava empire which ruled the southeastern coast of theIndian peninsula did not impose cultural restrictions on people who wished to cross the sea.[citation needed] TheChola empire, which executed theSouth-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I and theChola invasion of Srivijaya, profoundly impactedSoutheast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges withSoutheast Asia on the sea routes. WhereasBuddhism thrived and became the main religion in many countries ofSoutheast Asia, it became a minority religion inIndia.
The peoples ofmaritime Southeast Asia — present-dayMalaysia,Indonesia and thePhilippines — are thought to have migrated southward fromSouth China sometime between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization which existed on theIndian subcontinent gradually became predominant among them, and it also became predominant among the peoples which lived on theSoutheast Asian mainland.
Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration. Eventually the states of the mainland mainly became Buddhist.
The key drivers of theIndianisation of Southeast Asia were theAustronesian[4][5] andIndian maritime trade especially thespice trade and theMaritime Silk Road, the emissaries ofAshoka, and theBuddhist missions ofEmperor Ashoka the Great.
Austronesian sailors fromIsland Southeast Asia first established contact and trade withSouthern India andSri Lanka as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in the introduction of Southeast Asian material culture andcultigens to South Asia; as well as connecting the material cultures of India andChina. These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the widerspice trade network, which were later also used byTamil andArab maritime trade. The sustained contact between Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to the exchange of commodities.[4][5][6][7]
The first clear mention of a navy occurs in themythological epic theMahabharata.[8] Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organise a navy in India, as described byMegasthenes (c. 350—290 BCE), is attributed toChandragupta Maurya (reign 322—298 BCE).[8] TheMauryan empire (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the times of emperorAshoka (reign 273—232 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic missions to Greece,Syria, Egypt,Cyrene,Macedonia andEpirus.[8] Following nomadic interference inSiberia—one of the sources for India's bullion—India diverted its attention to theMalay Peninsula, which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a series of maritimetrade routes.[9] The period under the Mauryan empire also witnessed various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean maritime voyages.[9]
In the Sri Lankan tradition,Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.[10] To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.[11] Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.[11]
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:[12]
The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.[10][13]
Scholars, such asErich Frauwallner andRichard Gombrich, believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical.[14] According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: theVinaya Nidana mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found atBhilsa (nearVidisha). These caskets have been dated to early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school.[10] The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka.[15]
According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism.[16] Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.[16]
Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.[17]
During this era,Hindu andBuddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated witheconomic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities.[18]Buddhism, in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.[19]
InJava andBorneo, the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics, and trading posts here later served Chinese and Arab markets.[20] ThePeriplus Maris Erythraei names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed in an easterly direction toChryse.[21] Products from theMaluku Islands that were shipped across the ports of Arabia to theNear East passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka.[22] After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports, products were sometimes shipped toEast Africa, where they were used for a variety of purposes including burial rites.[22]
Maritime history of Odisha, known asKalinga in ancient times, started before 350 BC according to early sources. The people of this region of easternIndia along the coast of theBay of Bengal sailed up and down theIndian coast, and travelled toIndo China and throughoutMaritime Southeast Asia,introducing elements oftheir culture to thepeople with whom they traded. The 6th centuryManjusrimulakalpa mentions theBay of Bengal as 'Kalingodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kalinga Sagara' (both Kalingodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in themaritime trade.[23] The old traditions are still celebrated in the annualBali Jatra, or Boita-Bandana festival held for five days in October / November.[24]
TheChola dynasty (200—1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.[25] EmperorsRajaraja Chola I (reigned 985–1014) andRajendra Chola I (reigned 1012–1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits.[26] At its peak, theChola Empire stretched from the island ofSri Lanka in the south to theGodavari basin in the north.[27] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.[28] Chola naviesinvaded and conquered Srivijaya andSrivijaya was the largest empire inMaritime Southeast Asia.[29] Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in the "Indianization" of the wider world from this period.[30]
Quilon or Kollam inKerala coast, once called Desinganadu, has had a high commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and Romans.[31] Fed by the Chinese trade, it was mentioned byIbn Battuta in the 14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen in the course of his travels during twenty-four years.[32] The Kollam Port became operational by AD.825,[33] allowing Desinganadu's rulers to exchange the embassies with Chinese rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement atQuilon. The Indian commercial connection withSoutheast Asia proved vital to the merchants ofArabia andPersia between the 7th and 8th centuries CE.[20]
The kingdoms ofVijaynagara andKalinga established footholds in Malaya,Sumatra and WesternJava.[34]
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[35] Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.[36][37] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.[38][39][40] TheTang dynasty (618–907) of China, theSrivijaya empire in Maritime Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and theAbbasidcaliphate atBaghdad were the main trading partners.[41]
During the reign ofPandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765–790), theChera dynasty were a close ally of thePallavas.[42] Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king.[42] Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.[42] Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).[22] Chinese travelerXuanzang mentions the town ofPuri where "merchants depart for distant countries."[43]
Ma Huan (1413–51) reachedCochin and noted thatIndian coins, known asfanam, were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of onefen and oneli according to the Chinese standards.[44] They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-li weight each.[44]
Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to themaritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia,Indonesian archipelago,Indian subcontinent,Arabian Peninsula, all the way to Egypt and finally Europe.[45]
The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; includingSouth China Sea,Strait of Malacca,Indian Ocean,Gulf of Bengal,Arabian Sea,Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade,Spice trade,Indian Ocean trade and after 8th century – the Arabian naval trade network. The network also extend eastward toEast China Sea andYellow Sea to connect China withKorean Peninsula andJapanese archipelago.
Richard Foltz,Xinru Liu, and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions.Zoroastrianism,Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions.[46] Notably, established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven, as well as a new religion for foreigners.[47]
The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according toJerry H. Bentley, also led tosyncretism. One example was the encounter with the Chinese andXiongnu nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle, while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, music, and dance.[48] Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, Chinese soldiers sometimes defected and converted to the Xiongnu way of life, and stayed in the steppes for fear of punishment.[48]
Nomadic mobility played a key role in facilitating inter-regional contacts and cultural exchanges along the ancient Silk Roads.[49][50]
Buddhist knowledge among people on the Silk Road increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.[54] The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road became prominent in the 1st century CE, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese EmperorMing (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia.[55] Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.[56]
The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together.[57] Buddha's community of followers, theSangha, consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha.[58] As the number of members within the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit.[59] It is believed that under the control of theKushans, Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to the middle of the third century.[60] Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the territory of theTarim Basin, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan,Sogdian, orKuchean.[61]
One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city ofMerv, in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century.[62]
From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, withFa-hsien's pilgrimage to India (395–414), and laterXuanzang (629–644) andHyecho, who traveled from Korea to India.[63] The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel calledJourney to the West, which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey.
There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in theKhotan region.[54] The Mahayana, which was more of a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road.[64] With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality, including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point; this was often difficult for followers to understand.[65]
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE,merchants played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an appealing alternative to previous religions. Merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled.[66] Merchants also helped to establishdiaspora within the communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. These communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage.[67] The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society.[68] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended in Central Asia around the 7th century with the rise of Islam.
The history of Brunei before the arrival ofMagellan's ships in 1519-1522 CE is based on the interpretation of Chinese sources and local legends. Historians believe that there was a forerunner Indianised Hindu-Buddhist state to the present day Brunei Sultanate. One predecessor state was called Vijayapura, which possibly existed in northwestBorneo in the 7th century.[a] It was probably a subject state of the powerful Indianised Hindu-BuddhistSrivijaya empire based inSumatra. One predecessor state was called Po-ni (pinyin: Boni).[69] By the 10th century Po-ni had contacts with first theSong dynasty and at some point even entered into a tributary relationship with China. By the 14th century Po-ni also fell under the influence of the Indianised HinduJavaneseMajapahit Empire. The book ofNagarakretagama, canto 14, written by Prapanca in 1365 mentionedBerune as a vassal state of Majahpahit.[70] However this may have been nothing more than a symbolic relationship, as one account of the annual tribute owed each year to Majahpahit was a jar ofareca juice obtained from the young green nuts of the areca palm. The Ming dynasty resumed communications with Po-ni in the 1370s and the Po-ni ruler Ma-na-jih-chia-na visited the Ming capital Nanjing in 1408 and died there;his tomb was rediscovered in the 20th century, and is now a protected monument.
In 1402,Sultan Muhammad Shah died, he was first to convert from Hindu-Buddhism to Islam, and his pre-conversion name was Awang Alak Betatar.
At the western end of the South East Asian mainland, Lower Burma was occupied by the Mon peoples who are thought to have come originally from western China. In Lower Burma they supplanted an earlier people: the Pyu, of whom little is known except that they practised Hinduism.
The Mons strongly influenced by their contacts with Indian traders during the 3rd century B.C adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist religion. The Mons were one of the earliest known civilizations in Southeast Asia. They consisted of severalMon kingdoms, spreading from Lower Burma into much of Thailand, where they founded the kingdom ofDvaravati. Their principal settlements in Burma wereThaton Kingdom and Pegu.
From about the 9th century onward Tibeto-Burman tribes moved south from the hills east of Tibet into the Irrawaddy plain. They founded their capital atBagan in Upper Burma in the 10th century. They eventually absorbed the Mons, their cities and adopted the Mon civilization and Buddhism. TheBagan Kingdom united all Burma under one rule for 200 years - from the 11th to 13th centuries. The zenith of its power occurred during the reign of King Anawratha (1044–1077), who conquered the Mon kingdom of Thaton. King Anawratha built many of the temples for which Bagan is famous. It is estimated that some 13,000 temples once existed within the city, which some 5,000 still stand.
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In the 14th century, the Delhi sultanate controlled nearly all the territory that comprises present-day India. However, invaders from Central Asia weakened and broke up the sultanate's empire before it was swept aside by the Mughals in 1526.[71]
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The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread importance was theKingdom of Funan founded in the 1st century CE in what is nowCambodia — according to legend, after the marriage of a merchant monkKaundinya I with princessSoma who was the daughter of the chieftain of the localNāga clan. Funan flourished for some 500 years. It carried on a prosperous trade with India and China, and its engineers developed an extensive canal system. An elite practised statecraft, art and science, based on Indian culture. Vassal kingdoms spread to southern Vietnam in the east and to theMalay Peninsula in the west.[citation needed]
In late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan empire. It was succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state,Chenla, which lasted until the 9th century. Then aKhmer king, Jayavarman II (about 800–850) established a capital atAngkor in central Cambodia. He founded a cult which identified the king with the Hindu God Shiva – one of the triad of Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the god symbolising destruction and reproduction. The Angkor empire flourished from the 9th to the early 13th century. It reached the peak of its fame under Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century, when its conquests extended into Thailand in the west (where it had conquered the Mon kingdom of Dwaravati) and into Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the great temple ofAngkor Wat, built early in the 12th century. This summarises the position on the South East Asian mainland until about the 12th century. Meanwhile, from about the 6th century, and until the 14th century, there was a series of great maritime empires based on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. In early days these Indians came mostly from the ancient kingdom ofKalinga, on the southeastern coast of India. Indians in Indonesia are still known as "Klings", derived from Kalinga.
The later Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focused peoples who did not make contact with other islands and peoples by sea. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focused peoples that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices,sandalwood, deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.[72]
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Oral traditions of people ofWehali principality of East Timor mention their migration from Sina Mutin Malaka or"Chinese WhiteMalacca" (part ofIndianised Hindu-BuddhistSrivijaya empire) in ancient times.[73]
Nagarakretagama, the chronicles of theMajapahit empire called Timor a tributary,[74] but as Portuguese chronologistTomé Pires wrote in the 16th century, all islands east of Java were called "Timor".[75] Indonesian nationalist used the Majapahit chronicles to claim East Timor as part of Indonesia.[76]
Timor is mentioned in the 13th-century ChineseZhu Fan Zhi, where it is calledTi-wu and is noted for its sandalwood. It is calledTi-men in theHistory of Song of 1345. Writing towards 1350,Wang Dayuan refers to aKu-li Ti-men, which is a corruption ofGiri Timor, meaning island of Timor.[77] Giri from "mountain" inSanskrit, thus "mountainous island of Timor".
Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is theWehali orWehale kingdom in central Timor, to which theTetum,Bunak andKemak ethnic groups were aligned.
Beginning in the early sixteenth century, European colonialists—the Dutch in the island's west, and Portuguese in the east—would divide the island, isolating the East Timorese from the histories of the surrounding archipelago.[74]
Approximately for more than a millennia, between 5th to 15th centuries, the various Indianised states and empires flourished in theIndonesian archipelago; from the era ofTarumanagara toMajapahit. Though founded possibly by either early Indian settlers or by native polities that adopted Indian culture, and have maintaining diplomatic contacts with India, these archipelagic Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms remained politically independent from the kingdoms of Indian subcontinent.
The Indonesian archipelago saw the rise of Hindu-Buddhist empires ofSumatra andJava. In the islands of Southeast Asia, one of the first organised state to achieve fame was the Buddhist Malay kingdom ofSrivijaya, with its capital at Palembang in southernSumatra. Its commercial pre-eminence was based on command of the sea route from India to China between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula (later known as the Straits ofMalacca). In the 6th – 7th centuriesSrivijaya succeeded Funan as the leading state in Southeast Asia. Its ruler was the overlord of the Malay Peninsula and westernJava as well asSumatra. During the era of Srivijaya, Buddhism became firmly entrenched there.
The expansion of Srivijaya was resisted in eastern Java, where the powerful BuddhistSailendra dynasty arose. From the 7th century onwards there was great activity in temple building in central Java. The most impressive of the ruins is atBorobudur, considered to have been the largest Buddhist temple in the world. Sailendra rule spread to southern Sumatra, and up to the Malay Peninsula toCambodia (where it was replaced by theAngkorian kingdom). In the 9th century, the Sailendras moved to Sumatra, and a union of Srivijaya and the Sailendras formed an empire which dominated much of Southeast Asia for the next five centuries. After 500 Years of supremacy, Srivijaya was superseded by Majapahit.
In the 10th century,Mataram to the challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by KingAirlangga (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death and the new state of Kediri was formed in eastern Java.
Kediri kingdom, spread its influence to the eastern part of Southeast Asia and became the centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries. The spice trade was now becoming of increasing importance, as the demand by European countries for spices grew. Before they learned to keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat, made palatable by the addition of spices. One of the main sources was theMaluku Islands (or "Spice Islands") in Indonesia, and Kediri became a strong trading nation.
In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a revolution, andSinghasari arose in east Java. The domains of this new state expanded under the rule of its warrior-kingKertanegara. He was killed by a prince of the previous Kediri dynasty, who then established the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, Majapahit.
With the departure of the Sailendras and the fall of Singhasari, a newMajapahit kingdom appeared in eastern Java, which reverted from Buddhism to Hinduism. By the middle of the 14th century, Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, part ofBorneo, the southernCelebes and the Moluccas. It also exerted considerable influence on the mainland.
The first indigenous kingdom to emerge inIndochina was referred to in Chinese histories as theKingdom of Funan and encompassed an area of modernCambodia, and the coasts of southernVietnam and southernThailand since the 1st century CE.Funan was anIndianised kingdom,that had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture and engaged in profitable Indian Ocean trade.[78][79]
By the 2nd century CE, Austronesian settlers had established an Indianised kingdom known asChampa along modern central Vietnam. TheCham people established the first settlements near modernChampasak in Laos.Funan expanded and incorporated theChampasak region by the sixth century CE, when it was replaced by its successor polityChenla. Chenla occupied large areas of modern-day Laos as it accounts for the earliest kingdom on Laotian soil.[79][80]
The capital of earlyChenla was Shrestapura which was located in the vicinity ofChampasak and theUNESCO World Heritage Site ofWat Phu.Wat Phu is a vast temple complex in southern Laos which combined natural surroundings with ornate sandstone structures, which were maintained and embellished by theChenla peoples until 900 CE, and were subsequently rediscovered and embellished by theKhmer in the 10th century. By the 8th century CEChenla had divided into "Land Chenla" located in Laos, and "Water Chenla" founded by Mahendravarman nearSambor Prei Kuk inCambodia. LandChenla was known to the Chinese as "Po Lou" or "Wen Dan" and dispatched a trade mission to theTang dynasty court in 717 CE. WaterChenla, would come under repeated attack fromChampa, theMedang sea kingdoms in Indonesia based in Java, and finally pirates. From the instability the Khmer emerged.[81]
Under the kingJayavarman II theKhmer Empire began to take shape in the 9th century CE.[81][82]
In the area which is modern northern and central Laos, and northeastThailand theMon people established their own kingdoms during the 8th century CE, outside the reach of the contractingChenla kingdoms. By the 6th century in theChao Phraya River Valley,Mon peoples had coalesced to create theDvaravati kingdoms. In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introducedTherevada Buddhism fromSri Lankan missionaries throughout the region.[83][84]
TheMalay Peninsula was settled by prehistoric people 80,000 years ago. Another batch of peoples the deutro Malay migrated from southern China within 10,000 years ago. Upon arrival in the peninsula some of them mix with the Australoid. This gave the appearance of the Malays. It was suggested that the visiting ancient Dravidians named the peoples of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatera as "Malay ur" meant hills and city based on the geographical terrain ofPeninsular Malaysia and Sumatera. Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος; c. 90 – c. 168), known in English as Ptolemy, was a Greek geographer, astronomer, and astrologer who had written about Golden Chersonese, which indicates trade with the Indian Sub-Continent and China has existed since the 1st century AD.[85] Archeologist have found relic and ruin inBujang Valley settlement dating back at 110AD. The settlement is believed to be the oldest civilization in Southeast Asia influenced by ancient Indians. Today, Malaysians of direct Indian descent account for approximately 7 per cent of the total population of Malaysia (approximately. 2 million)[citation needed]
Hinduism andBuddhism fromIndia dominated early regional history, reaching their peak during the reign of theSumatra-basedSrivijaya civilisation, whose influence extended throughSumatra,Java, theMalay Peninsula and much ofBorneo from the 7th to the 13th centuries, which later gradually defeated and converted to Islam in 14th and 15th century before the European colonisation began in 16th century.
In the first millennium CE, Malays became the dominant race on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia.[86]Indian influence in the region dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE. Tamil culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the TamilPallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th century.[87]
In ancient Indian literature, the termSuvarnadvipa or the "Golden Peninsula" is used inRamayana, and some argued that it may be a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient Indian textVayu Purana also mentioned a place namedMalayadvipa where gold mines may be found, and this term has been proposed to mean possibly Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.[88] The Malay Peninsula was shown onPtolemy'smap as the "Golden Khersonese". He referred to the Straits of Malacca asSinus Sabaricus.[89]
Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC.[90] Shards of Chinese pottery have been found inBorneo dating from the 1st century following thesouthward expansion of the Han dynasty.[91] In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions ofHinduism andBuddhism, religions which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia.[92] TheSanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century.[93]
There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd century, as many as 30, mainly based on the Eastern side of the Malay Peninsula.[86] Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in the Malay Peninsula is the ancient kingdom ofLangkasuka, located in the northern Malay Peninsula and based somewhere on the west coast.[86] It was closely tied toFunan in Cambodia, which also ruled part of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, theKingdom of Pahang was mentioned in theBook of Song. According to theSejarah Melayu ("Malay Annals"), theKhmer prince Raja Ganji Sarjuna founded the kingdom ofGangga Negara (modern-dayBeruas,Perak) in the 700s. Chinese chronicles of the 5th century CE speak of a great port in the south calledGuantoli, which is thought to have been in theStraits of Malacca. In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, and this is believed to be a Chinese rendering ofSrivijaya.
Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of theMalay Peninsula was under the BuddhistSrivijaya empire. The site of Srivijaya's centre is thought be at ariver mouth in easternSumatra, based near what is now Palembang.[94] For over six centuries theMaharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) swearing allegiance to the central lord for mutual profit.[95]
Chola empire also had profound impact on Southeast Asia, who executedSouth-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I andChola invasion of Srivijaya.
The relation between Srivijaya and theChola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign ofRaja Raja Chola I but during the reign ofRajendra Chola I the Chola Empireinvaded Srivijaya cities.[96]In 1025 and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked byRajendra Chola I of theChola Empire, theTamil emperor who is now thought to have laidKota Gelanggi to waste. Kedah—known asKedaram,Cheh-Cha (according toI-Ching) orKataha, in ancientPallava orSanskrit—was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by theCholas from 1025. A second invasion was led byVirarajendra Chola of theChola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century.[97] The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty ofSrivijaya, which had exerted influence overKedah,Pattani and as far asLigor. During the reign ofKulothunga Chola I Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya provincekedah in the late 11th century.[98] The expedition of theChola Emperors had such a great impression to theMalay people of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya.[99][100][101] Even today the Chola rule is remembered inMalaysia as manyMalaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja ofPerak calledRaja Chulan.[102][103]
Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods fromKedaram heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama,Kaumudhimahotsva, refers to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. TheAgnipurana also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe isGunung Jerai. Stories from theKatasaritasagaram describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The Buddhistkingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its kingChandrabhanu used it as a base to attackSri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum inTamil Nadu and in the Sri Lankan chronicles,Mahavamsa.
At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even the Chola kingdom tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states.[86] The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassal states broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and it may have also waged wars with the Indian states. In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted toMalayu, a port which was possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near theJambi River.[95] The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by thespread of Islam. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such asAceh, broke away from Srivijaya's control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings ofSukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century, the Hindu Java-basedMajapahit empire came into possession of the peninsula.[94]
In the 14th century that firstIslamic sultanate was established. The adoption of Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was theSultanate of Malacca. Islam had a profound influence on theMalay people.
ThePortuguese were the first European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula andSoutheast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases atJesselton,Kuching,Penang andSingapore, ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries betweenBritish Malaya and theNetherlands East Indies (which became Indonesia). A fourth phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.[104]
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The Greco-Roman astronomerPtolemy (90–168) identified a place calledSabana at the tip ofGolden Chersonese (believed to be theMalay Peninsula) in the second and third century.[109] The earliest written record of Singapore may be in a Chinese account from the third century, describing the island ofPu Luo Chung (蒲羅中). This is thought to be atranscription from theMalay name"Pulau Ujong", or "island at the end" (of theMalay Peninsula).[110]
In 1025 CE,Rajendra Chola I of theChola Empire led forces across theIndian Ocean and invaded theSrivijayan empire, attacking several places inMalaysia andIndonesia.[111][112] The Chola forces were said to have controlledTemasek (nowSingapore) for a couple of decades.[113] The name Temasek however did not appear in Chola records, but a tale involving a Raja Chulan (assumed to be Rajendra Chola) and Temasek was mentioned in the semi-historicalMalay Annals.[114]
TheNagarakretagama, aJavanese eulogy written in 1365, referred to a settlement on the island calledTumasik (possibly meaning "Sea Town" or "Sea Port").[115]
The nameTemasek is also given inSejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), which contains a tale of the founding of Temasek by a prince ofSrivijaya, Sri Tri Buana (also known asSang Nila Utama) in the 13th century. Sri Tri Buana landed on Temasek on a hunting trip, and saw a strange beast said to be a lion. The prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in Sanskrit. The actual origin of thename Singapura however is unclear according to scholars.[116]
In 1320, theMongol Empire sent a trade mission to a place calledLong Ya Men (orDragon's Teeth Gate), which is believed to beKeppel Harbour at the southern part of the island.[117] The Chinese travellerWang Dayuan, visiting the island around 1330, describedLong Ya Men as one of the two distinct settlements inDan Ma Xi (from MalayTemasek), the other beingBan Zu (from Malaypancur).Ban Zu is thought to be present dayFort Canning Hill, andrecent excavations in Fort Canning found evidence indicating that Singapore was an important settlement in the 14th century.[118][119] Wang mentioned that the natives ofLong Ya Men (thought to be theOrang Laut) and Chinese residents lived together inLong Ya Men.[120][121] Singapore is one of the oldest locations where a Chinese community is known to exist outside China, and the oldest corroborated by archaeological evidence.[122]
Sometime in its history, the name of Temasek was changed to Singapura. TheSejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) contains a tale of a prince ofSrivijaya, Sri Tri Buana (also known asSang Nila Utama), who landed on Temasek after surviving a storm in the 13th century. According to the tale, the prince saw a strange creature, which he was told was alion; believing this to be an auspicious sign, he decided to found a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" inSanskrit. It is unlikely there ever were lions in Singapore, thoughtigers continued to roam the island until the early 20th century. However, the lion motif is common in Hindu mythology, which was dominant in the region during that period (one of the words for "throne" in theMalay language is "singgasana", meaning "lion's seat" in Sanskrit), and it has been speculated that the "Singapura" name, and the tale of the lion, were invented by court historians of theMalacca Sultanate to glorify Sang Nila Utama and his line of descent.[123]
Different versions of its history are told in Portuguese sources, suggesting that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed byParameswara from Palembang.[124] Historians believe that during the late 14th century,Parameswara, the last Srivijayan prince, fled to Temasek fromPalembang after being deposed by theMajapahit Empire. According to Portuguese accounts, Parameswara killed the local chief with the title Sang Aji eight days after being welcomed into Temasek.[125]
By the 14th century, the empire ofSrivijaya had already declined, and Singapore was caught in the struggle between Siam (nowThailand) and the Java-based Majapahit Empire for control over the Malay Peninsula. According to theMalay Annals, Singapore was defeated in one Majapahit attack. The last king,Sultan Iskandar Shah (a prince of Srivijaya empire, his Hindu name Parameswara before he was converted to Islam) ruled the island for several years, before being forced toMelaka where he founded theSultanate of Malacca.[126] Portuguese sources however indicated that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed byParameswara (thought to be the same person as Sultan Iskandar Shah) from Palembang, and Parameswara was then driven to Malacca, either by the Siamese or the Majapahit, where he founded theMalacca Sultanate.[127] Modern archaeological evidence suggests that the settlement onFort Canning was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards.[116]
The Malacca Sultanate extended its authority over the island and Singapore became a part of the Malacca Sultanate.[110] However, by the time the Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century, Singapura had already become "great ruins" according toAlfonso de Albuquerque.[128][129] In 1511, the Portuguese seized Malacca; the sultan of Malacca escaped south and established theJohor Sultanate, and Singapore then became part of the sultanate which was destroyed in 1613.[130]
The Portuguese however destroyed the settlement in Singapore in 1613, and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries.[130][131]
Historically, the cultural and economic interaction between the two countries can be traced to roughly around the 6th century B.C. The single most significant cultural contribution of India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, isBuddhism. Propagated in Thailand in the 3rd century B.C. by Buddhist monks sent byKing Asoka, it was adopted as the state religion of Thailand and has ruled the hearts and minds of Thais ever since. Presently 58,000,000 Thais, an overwhelming 94% of the total Thai populace adheres to Buddhism. However, direct contact can be said to have begun only in the 3rd century B.C. when King Asoka sent Buddhist monks to propagate Buddhism in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. Besides Buddhism, Thailand has also adopted other typically Indian religious and cultural traditions. The ceremonies and rites especially as regards the Monarchy evidence a strong Hindu influence.
The Indians who moved into Thailand in theSukhothai period (1275–1350) were either merchants who came to Siam or Thailand, for the purpose of trading orBrahmans who played an important role in the Siamese court as experts in astrology and in conducting ceremonies. The first group of Brahmans who entered Siam before the founding of Sukhothai as the first capital of Siam (1275–1350) popularized Hindu beliefs and traditions. During the Sukhothai period Brahman temples already existed. Brahmans conducted ceremonies in the court. The concepts of divine kingship and royal ceremonies are clear examples of the influence of Brahmanism.
TheCoronation of the Thai monarch are practiced more or less in its original form even up to the present reign. The Thai idea that the king is a reincarnation of the Hindu deityVishnu was adopted from Indian tradition. (Though this belief no longer exists today, the tradition to call each Thai king of the present Chakri dynasty Rama (Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu) with an ordinal number, such as Rama I, Rama II etc. is still in practice.)
In theAyutthaya kingdom era (1350–1767), more Tamil merchants entered the South of the country by boat as evidenced by the statues of Hindu gods excavated in the South.
After the year 1855, the Tamils who migrated to Thailand can be classified into three groups according to the religion they believed in, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.
Thai literature anddrama draws great inspiration fromIndian arts andlegend. The Hindu epic ofRamayana is as popular in Thailand as it is in India. Thailand has adapted the Ramayana to suit the Thai lifestyle in the past and has come up with its own version of the Ramayana, namely, theRamakien.
Two of the most popular classical dances theKhon, performed by men wearing ferocious masks, and theLakhon (Lakhon nai,Lakhon chatri andLakhon nok), performed by women who play both male and female roles draws inspiration primarily from the Ramakien. Percussion instruments andPiphat, a type of woodwind accompany the dance.[132]
In addition, there areshadow play callednang talung in Thai. This is a show in which shadows of pieces of cow or water buffalo hide cut to represent human figures with movable arms and legs are thrown on a screen for the entertainment of spectators. InSouth India, this kind of show is called Bommalattam.
Thai language too bears close affinity with Sanskrit and Dravidian languages. An indication of the close linguistic affiliation between India and Thailand is found in common Thai words like Ratha Mantri, Vidhya, Samuthra, Karuna, Gulab, Prannee etc. which are almost identical to their Indian counterparts. Thai language basically consists of monosyllabic words that are individually complete in meaning. His Majesty KingRam Khamhaeng the Great created theThai alphabet in 1283. He modeled it on the ancient Indian alphabets ofSanskrit andPali through the medium of theold Khmer characters. Like most world languages, the Thai language is a complicated mixture derived from several sources. Many Thai words used today were derived fromPali,Sanskrit, Khmer, Malay, English and Chinese.[132]
Several Thai ceremonies have been adopted from Indian tradition. These include ceremonies related to ordination, marriage, merit making and cremation. Though the Buddha is the prime inspiration of Thailand, Brahma and other Hindu deities are widely worshipped among the Thais, due in part to the popularity of the Hindu ceremonial rites, which are used especially for royal ceremonies.
(1) TheTriyampawai Ceremony or the Giant Swing Ceremony. Originally aBrahmin ceremony performed to pay homage to the GodShiva, it was traditionally held front ofWat Suthat, while the King and Queen watched the ceremony from a gold silk pavilion. Though the ceremony was abolished during the reign of KingRama VII due to a severe economic fall, Brahman priests are still allocated money to make offerings to God Shiva.
(2) TheRoyal Ploughing Ceremony, which is officiated by H.M. the king atSanam Luang in May every year with pomp. Originally a Brahmanic rite, it was adopted to mark the beginning of the farming season as also to bless all farmers with fertility for the year.
(3) TheRoyal Ceremony for preparing Celestial Rice orKhao thip which was said to be originally prepared by celestial beings in honor of God Indra. A portion of the celestial rice is offered to monks while the remainder was divided in varying quantities among the royal family, courtiers and household members. The making of the ambrosial dish has come to a natural end since custom demanded that virgins alone should perform the preparation and stirring of celestial rice.
(4) TheKathina Ceremony or the period during which Buddhist monks receive new robes, which generally falls in the months of October- November.
(5)Loy Krathong – the Festival of Lights which is celebrated on the full moon night of the twelfth lunar month. Thefloating of Loi Krathong lanterns, which began in theSukhothai Kingdom period, continued throughout the different stages of Thai history. The present day understanding is that the festival is celebrated as an act of worship toChao Mae Kangka, the Goddess of the Waters, for providing the water much needed throughout the year, and as a way of asking forgiveness if they have polluted it or used it carelessly.
(6)Songkran Festival: Songkran day marks Thai New Year day. "Songkran" signifies the sun's move into the first house of the zodiac. It is similar to IndianHoli andMakar Sankranti.
(7)Visakha Puja Day which is considered as the greatest Buddhist holy day as it commemorates the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha.
Other famous ceremonial holy days includeMagha Puja day, in February andAsalha Puja day in July which commemorates the day on which the Buddha delivered theFirst Sermon to his five disciples, namely, Konthanya, Vassapa, Bhattiya,Mahanama and Assashi atEsipatanamaruekathayawan (Isipatana forest at Sarnath in India) and there explained his concept of theFour Noble Truths (Ariyasai).[132]
Hindu astrology still has a great impact on several important stages of Thai life. Thai people still seek advice from knowledgeable Buddhist monks or Brahman astrologers about the auspicious or inauspicious days for conducting or abstaining from ceremonies for moving house or getting married.
According to the Thai monk VenerableBuddhadasa Bhikku's writing, 'India's Benevolence to Thailand', the Thais also obtained the methods of makingherbal medicines (Ayurveda) from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of familyGuttiferae, kanika orharsinghar, phikun orMimusops elengi and bunnak or therose chestnut etc. were brought from India.[132]
Thai monkBuddhadasa Bhikku's pointed out thatThai cuisine too was influenced byIndian cuisine. He wrote that Thai people learned how to usespices in their food in various ways from Indians.[132]
At the eastern extremity of mainland Southeast Asia, northernVietnam was originally occupied by Austro-Asiatic peoples. However, when regional power structures shiftedKra-Dai speakingtribes from Southern China began to settle in these lands. About 207 BC,Triệu Đà, aQin general, taking advantage of the temporary fragmentation of the Chinese Empire on the collapse of theQin dynasty, created in northern Vietnam the kingdom ofNanyue. During the 1st century BC, Nanyue was incorporated in the Chinese Empire of theHan dynasty; and it remained a province of the empire until the fall of theTang dynasty early in the 10th century. It then regained its independence, often as a nominal tributary kingdom of the Chinese emperor.
In south-central Vietnam the Chams, a people ofAustronesian stock, established the Hinduised kingdom ofChampa c. 400. Subject to periodic invasions by the Annamese and by the Khmers of Cambodia, Champa survived and prospered. In 1471, a Vietnamese army of approximately 260,000, invaded Champa under EmperorLê Thánh Tông (黎聖宗). The invasion began as a consequence of Cham King'sTrà Toàn attack on Vietnam in 1470. The Vietnamese committed genocide against the Cham slaughtering approximately 60,000. The Vietnamese destroyed, burnt and raided massive parts of Champa, seizing the entire kingdom. Thousands of Cham escaped to Cambodia, the remaining were forced to assimilate intoVietnamese culture. Today, only 80,000 Cham remain in Vietnam.
Vietnam, or then known asAnnam (安南; pinyin: Ānnán), experienced little Hindu influence – usually via Champa. Unlike other Southeast Asian countries (except for Singapore and the Philippines), Vietnam was influenced by the Indian-origin religion Buddhism via the strong impact ofculture of China.
It has been further proved that not only linguistic but also certain cultural and political facts of ancient India, can be explained by Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) elements.
The term 'southernization' [...] is used [...] to refer to a multifaceted process that began in Southern Asia and spread from there [...]. The process included [...] many interrelated strands of development[:] [...] the metallurgical, the medical, [...] the literary [...] the development of mathematics; the production and marketing of subtropical or tropical spices; the pioneering of new trade routes; the cultivation, processing, and marketing of southern crops such as sugar and cotton; and the development of various related technologies. [...] Southernization was well under way in Southern Asia by the fifth century C.E.
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