High church Lutheranism is a movement that began in 20th-century Europe and emphasizes worship practices and doctrines that emphasize thesacraments andliturgy, along with a robust devotional life. In the more general usage of the term, it describes the generalhigh church characteristics ofLutheranism in Nordic and Baltic countries such asSweden,Finland,Estonia andLatvia. The mentioned countries have more markedly preserved pre-Reformation, Catholic traditions and eschewedReformed theology. From the earliest part of its development, Lutheranism as a whole has employed elaborate liturgies and ornatesacred art.^[1][2] Lutheranism has viewed its faith and practice as "deeply and fundamentally catholic".^[3] It is closely related to the concept ofEvangelical Catholicism, which emphasizes thecatholicity of Lutheranism.

The English termshigh church andlow church were historically applied to particular liturgical and theological groups within Anglicanism. The theological differences within Lutheranism have not been nearly so marked as those within theAnglican Communion; Lutherans have historically been unified in the doctrine expressed in theBook of Concord. However, quite early in Lutheranism, polarities began to develop owing to the influence of theReformed tradition, leading to so-called "Crypto-Calvinism". ThePietistic Lutheran movement in the 17th century also moved parts of the Lutheran Church further in a direction that would be considered "low church". Pietism andrationalism led not only to the simplification or even elimination of certain ceremonial elements,^[4] such as the use of vestments,^[5] but also to less frequent celebration of theEucharist, by the end of the era ofLutheran Orthodoxy.^{[citation needed]} There has been very littleiconoclasm in Lutheran churches and church buildings have often remained richly furnished (cf.Lutheran art). Some monasteries also continued as Lutheran after the Reformation.Loccum Abbey andAmelungsborn Abbey in Germany have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries.

In oldchurch orders, however there was much variation which could now be described as "high church" or "low church". One example of the more Catholic ones is theSwedish Church Ordinance 1571. TheAgenda of the church order ofMargraviate of Brandenburg (1540) contained unusually rich provision for ceremonial usages.^[6] The legacy of Brandenburgian Lutheranism was later visible inOld Lutherans' resistance to compromise in the doctrine ofReal Presence. Other church orders following closely to pre-Reformation rites and ceremonies werePalatinate-Neuburg (1543, retaining a eucharistic prayer^[7]) and Austria (1571, prepared byDavid Chytraeus).^[8]

William Augustus Mühlenberg, father of theRitualist movement in theEpiscopal Church in the United States of America, was originally Lutheran and came from a Lutheran family.^[9]

In Europe, after long influence ofPietism,theological rationalism, and finally, 19th century German Neo-Protestantism, a ground for 20th-century High Church or Evangelical Catholic Movement developed. The terms "High Church" (Evangelical Catholic) and "Low Church" (Confessing Evangelical) began to be used to describe differences within the Lutheran tradition. However, this terminology is not necessarily as characteristic for a Lutheran's identity as it often is for anAnglican.^[10]

Sometimes there is a distinction made betweenNordic style Lutheranism andGerman style Lutheranism, with the latter being more influenced by pietism and the former having both retained and later also revived more of its pre-Reformation liturgy and practices and therefore being more high church. Examples of this are well-preserved church interiors, apostolic succession, and a clearepiscopal structure. Although the nameNordic is used, it is actually mostly applicable to Sweden and Finland, and to a lesser extent, to Estonia and Latvia because those countries were part of theSwedish empire and were therefore the jurisdiction of theChurch of Sweden. The other Nordic countries of Denmark, Norway, and Iceland were under the influence of Danish rule in which the German form is dominant.^{[citation needed]}

The roots of 20th-century Lutheran High Church Movement are in 19th centuryneo-Lutheranism,confessional Lutheranism,Anglo-Catholicism, and theLiturgical Movement. High church Lutheranism has often been (especially in Scandinavian churches) a theologically orthodoxrevival movement at least among clergy, with a strongecclesiology, standing in opposition toState church and "Folk church" ideologies, which parallelErastianism within Anglican Church. The historic, elaborate liturgy and practice within Lutheranism itself was an inspiration for Anglo-Catholicism in the Church of England.^[11][12] The range within High Church Movement varies across a spectrum from moderate to papalist. TheSecond Vatican Council led to a breakthrough for the High Church Movement, which is slowly gaining support.^[13]

In Northern Europe, the term High Church has been often used pejoratively,^[14] and was not necessarily ever used by pioneers of the movement, who identified themselves as Catholics of the Augsburg Confession. Nevertheless, the term "high church" has established itself at least in Sweden and Germany. Especially in North America, the term "high church" is avoided, because it is seen to not take seriously Lutheran confession and historical tradition asEvangelical Catholic.^[15] The term "high church" has also been criticized by theologians likeHermann Sasse (in German context) as not to integrate itself into authentic Lutheran tradition.^[16]

The Evangelical Catholic movement has been preserved by manyconfraternities, religious orders, andmonastic communities within Lutheranism. It is growing in countries such as Norway.^[17]

High Church movements have in some cases, especially in Northern Europe, fallen into crisis because of the issue ofordination of women. In Norway the issue has resulted in the establishment of theEvangelical Lutheran Diocese of Norway and theNordic Catholic Church. In Germany, on the other hand, the primary issue has been the lack ofhistorical episcopate andapostolic succession.^{[citation needed]}

Nevertheless, the Evangelical Catholic movement has influenced whole church bodies, and in some cases has developed liberal expressions. The liturgical emphasis does not always indicate Catholic Lutheranism, because in the Lutheran Church, theLiturgical Movement apart from the Evangelical Catholic movement has been influential. Thus in Europe a certain amount of "high church" interest has been based on aesthetics, tastes inparaments,vestments, and ceremonies, without any theological argumentation or sense of historical continuity. Similarly, interest in mediaeval church buildings may have no concerns regarding the theology behind the form of worship taking place within these buildings.^{[citation needed]}

Historically Sweden, including the former Swedish province of Finland, has had a more elaborate form of liturgy, which preserved more links to the medieval Catholic tradition than other Nordic countries. Hence the most remarkable Lutheran high-church movement by its influence on the whole church body has been in theChurch of Sweden, influenced at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries by theAnglo-Catholic part of the Church of England (though Lutheranism had itself influenced the development of the Anglo-Catholic movement).^[12] The first religious order within the high church movement was theSocietas Sanctae Birgittae, which still exists. The movement spread intensively through the activity ofGunnar Rosendal, the hymnwriterOlov Hartman, and the retreat directorJan Redin. The more subtle high church influence of BishopBo Giertz has been remarkable especially amongPietists. The early high church movement caused the emergence of retreat centres, more frequent celebration of theMass, and livelyhistorical-critical study of theBible.^{[citation needed]}

The high church movement in Lutheranism in Sweden sees theEucharist as "the centre of Lutheran church-focused Christianity, because that is where the divine and the human realities interact."^[18]

The ordination of women as clergy began in 1958, and caused a split within the Swedish high church party. One branch with liberal leanings accepted this step while the other did not. Later, one of the leading figures of the high church movement was Bishop emeritusBertil Gärtner who was against the ordination of women. He was successor to Bo Giertz as bishop of Gothenburg. He died in 2009. His role in the High Church movement fell on Bishop emeritusBiörn Fjärstedt [sv], the former bishop ofVisby.^{[citation needed]}

TheSvensk Pastoraltidskrift is the traditionalist journal of the High Church Movement in Sweden. The nucleus of the movement isarbetsgemenskapen Kyrklig Förnyelse (Swedish Church Union) together with numerous religious societies and some Lutheran monastic communities likeÖstanbäck monastery,Alsike Convent, andSisterhood of Saint Francis. Other organisations include theSt. Laurence Foundation, theSt. Ansgar Foundation, andFörbundet För Kristen Enhet, which works for the reunion of theChurch of Sweden and theRoman Catholic Church. Additionally the AnglicanConfraternity of the Blessed Sacrament is active within the Church of Sweden, with a national cell dependent upon the English jurisdiction of the confraternity.^{[citation needed]}

In Germany, the high church movement is much smaller than in Sweden. Because of several unions betweenLutheran andReformed churches since thePrussian Union, resulting in the simple spread of Calvinist concepts from the Reformed Churches by "osmosis", Lutheranism has often taken on aReformed context. The high church movement within theEvangelical Church in Germany has been much less influential than in Sweden and perhaps less integrated to the state Lutheran tradition. Still the movement is strongly involved inecumenism and theLiturgical Movement.^{[citation needed]}

The case is much different in theIndependent Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Germany. This church is aconfessional Lutheran church in full "pulpit and altar fellowship" (full communion) with theLutheran Church – Missouri Synod. Because of the confessional Lutheran direction, there is a high church movement in that Church.^[19][20]

The German high church movement began inReformation Jubilee 1917, inspired by publication ofStimuli et Clavi, 95 theses byHeinrich Hansen. This resulted in the founding ofHochkirchliche Vereinigung Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses (High Church Union of the Augsburg Confession) the following year. Subsequently, other high church associations and societies also arose, distinguished from other Lutheran bodies by restoredapostolic succession (mostly throughHochkirchliche St. Johannes-Bruderschaft, which is part of the HVAB, along with theEvangelische Franziskaner-Tertiaren.The Catholic movement gained new strength by theSammlung movement byHans Asmussen andMax Lackmann. Other associations areBund für evangelisch-katholische Einheit (League for Evangelical-Catholic Unity), includingSt. Jakobus- Bruderschaft),Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kirchliche Erneuerung in der Evang.-Luth. Kirche in Bayern (Working Group for Church Revival in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria),Humiliatenorden,St. Athanasius-Bruderschaft,Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar,Bekenntnisbruderschaft St. Peter und Paul,Kommunität St. Michael inCottbus,Congregatio Canonicorum Sancti Augustini, and some religious communities likePriory of St. Wigbert.^{[citation needed]}

Other organisations, such asBerneuchen Movement andKirchliche Arbeit Alpirsbach are regarded as part of theLiturgical Movement, although the former is theologically high church and in co-operation with High Church associations and religious fraternities.^{[citation needed]}

The 19th-centuryOld Lutheran and alsoNeo-Lutheran (e.g.Charles Porterfield Krauth) influence in North America was strong. The missionary work ofWilhelm Loehe, from Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, Germany, did much to contribute to Lutheran liturgical renewal in Germany and beyond.^[21] Loehe's influence can be seen in the Lutheran migration to Australia and North America. In North America this was seen in theLutheran Church – Missouri Synod and theIowa Synod.

TheEvangelical Catholic movement was born later than the European movement. Its forerunners includeArthur Carl Piepkorn,Berthold Von Schenk, and Fr.Arthur Kreinheder. Portions of theEvangelical Lutheran Church in America and theEvangelical Lutheran Church in Canada have evangelical catholic emphases. Evangelical catholic congregations range from theologically liberal to conservative. TheSociety of the Holy Trinity is the largest evangelical catholic religious society in North America. Theologically, it is moderate and relatively conservative in ecumenical openness. The most ornate liturgy is to be found in the congregations of Evangelical Catholic Lutheran Churches such as theLutheran Church - International (LC-I), many parishes of the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod,^[22][23] and in many Lutheran seminaries of all Lutheran varieties across North America which celebrateSolemn High Mass with ceremony similar to that found in traditional Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic parishes. The Society of Saint Polycarp, a devotional guild, was also founded within the LCMS.^[24] The most important evangelical catholic journals areLutheran Forum, published byAmerican Lutheran Publicity Bureau (ALPB), andPro Ecclesia, published by theCenter for Catholic and Evangelical Theology in cooperation with the ALPB.^{[citation needed]}

Valparaiso University, an independent Lutheran institution, has also continued in its own evangelical catholic tradition. The development of this tradition is a unique blend between the movements within the various Lutheran church bodies. Students play a key role in crafting these services. Another significant contributor to the evangelical catholic values of Valparaiso University is the presence of the annual Liturgical Institute on its campus.^{[citation needed]}

Like some previously mentioned German religious clerical fraternities, in the United States the LC-I and in recent years other small, biblically and theologically conservative high churchevangelical catholic Lutheran Churches such asThe Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church,Lutheran Orthodox Church, the Association of Independent Evangelical Lutheran Churches, theEvangelical Marian Catholic Church, and theLutheran Episcopal Communion have succeeded in restoring the historicapostolic succession fromOld Catholic churches.^[25] Additionally, some have moved from decentralized, democraticcongregationalist polity to highly centralizedepiscopal polity; worship using the liturgies of the Roman Catholic Church exclusively; and work actively toward a form of visible, corporate reunion with the Roman Catholic Church.^{[citation needed]}

In North America, Lutheran liturgical renewal has also been seen in such organizations as the defunct St. James Society, the journalThe Bride of Christ, the journalGottesdienst: The Journal of Lutheran Liturgy, the defunct journalMotley Magpie, theSociety of the Holy Trinity, the Lutheran Liturgical Prayer Brotherhood (influenced by GermanEvangelisch-Lutherische Gebetsbruderschaft), the Lutheran Missal Project, theSociety of Saint Polycarp, the Society for the Preservation of the Evangelical Lutheran Liturgy, and the Good Shepherd Institute atConcordia Theological Seminary in Fort Wayne, Indiana.^{[citation needed]}

TheChurch of Norway is generally pietistic. ThePietism movement in Norway (embodied to a great extent by theHaugean movement fostered byHans Nielsen Hauge) has served to reduce the distance between lay and clergy in Norway. The high church movement is more isolated and much smaller than in Sweden. It has been promoted byOrdo Crucis,Bønne- og arbeidsfellesskapet Kirkelig Fornyelse,Pro Ecclesia, andSamråd på Kirkens Grunn.^{[citation needed]}

In theChurch of Denmark the high church movement is marginal. It is promoted by Fællesskabet Kirkelig Fornyelse. Praying of theDaily office has been promoted byTeologisk Oratorium (the best-known member having beenRegin Prenter) and bySelskabet dansk Tidegærd.^{[citation needed]}

TheChurch of Iceland and theEvangelical Lutheran Church of Finland have also had high church groups and interest has been expressed among bothclergy andlaity, though to a very small extent. After the Soviet era, in Baltic Lutheran Churches, including archbishopJānis Vanags, there has been interest to High Church Movement. InEstonian Evangelical Lutheran Church the movement is promoted by a confessional Society of the Augsburg Confession.^[26]

Throughecumenism, evangelical catholic ideas have been accepted more widely in academic theology, e.g. recent ecumenicalLutheran research in the Finnish School ofTuomo Mannermaa has begun to see Martin Luther as a Catholic teacher. This school of thought includes alsoCarl Braaten andRobert Jenson. Roman Catholic view of Luther in research has changed to positive sinceJoseph Lortz. In 1976Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) suggested that theAugsburg Confession might possibly be recognized as a Catholic statement of faith. This however did not happen.^[27] Within evangelical catholic Lutheranism, there has been less movement towards Roman Catholicism than within Anglo-Catholicism. Owing to liberalism in Lutheran churches, some well known Lutheran theologians, such asRichard John Neuhaus andReinhard Hütter, have becomeRoman Catholic while others, such asJaroslav Pelikan, have joined theEastern Orthodox Church.^{[citation needed]}

The aim of the Evangelical Catholics is to recover the liturgical and confessional heritage of Lutheranism in continuity with the broad tradition that includes Anglicans, Roman Catholics, and the Eastern Orthodox.^[28] The Movement stresses certain elements of the Church:Dogma,sacraments, hierarchy and ordained ministry,liturgy and continuity of the Church, all of which are traditional Lutheran theology, but were thought to have been neglected because ofPietism and theAge of Enlightenment. There is also emphasis on Catholic concept of priesthood andapostolic succession,ecumenism andMariology. The Catholic concept of priesthood and continuity of the Church sets the movement apart from mainline Lutheranism and the ecumenical openness for some extent distincts the movement fromConfessional Lutheranism, though certain Confessional Lutheran denominations, such as theLutheran Church - International, are committed to an Evangelical Catholic churchmanship.^[29] The approach to worship may also significantly vary within Confessional Lutheranism.^{[citation needed]}

By theological emphasis the High Church Movement may vary from one country to another. The classical manifesto of the Scandinavian high church revival program is "Kyrklig förnyelse" byGunnar Rosendal (1935). In its beginning the German high church movement was inspired by the 95 theses "Stimuli et Clavi" by pastorHeinrich Hansen (1917).^{[citation needed]}

In the same way as Anglo-Catholics have esteemedCaroline Divines, the Catholic Lutherans, owing to the nature of the Lutheran Reformation, have been able to appreciate many, largely forgotten, Catholic teachings of Reformers likeMartin Luther,Laurentius Petri,Mikael Agricola,George of Anhalt,Martin Chemnitz,Gnesio-Lutherans, Gerhard'sConfessio Catholica etc. According to formerly Roman CatholicFriedrich Heiler, the Lutheran Church is the propervia media betweenRoman Catholicism andProtestantism because of its emphasis upon doctrine and because it has preserved the Catholic doctrine of the Sacrament and its liturgical traditions in purer form than the Anglican Church in theBook of Common Prayer.^[30]

Evangelical Catholic spirituality is characteristically moretheocentric andchristocentric than that of Pietist, rationalistic, and Liberal Protestant Lutheranism. In addition to theTheology of the Cross there is usually emphasis onChristus Victor, which makes it clear thatEaster is more important thanGood Friday. Theocentricism makes salvation history and the cycle of thechurch year important, from point of view of theincarnation.^{[citation needed]}

These stresses have created the need to give an evangelical interpretation to the sacrifice of theMass in order to provide a more theocentric view toReal presence. E.g. in Sweden there has been discovering ofLaurentius Petri's theology on the sacrifice of the Mass.^[31][32] According toWilhelm Loehe, "the whole of Lutheranism is contained in the Sacrament of the Altar. Here all of the chief doctrines of Christianity, especially those highlighted by the Reformation, have their focal point."^[33] In evangelical catholic spirituality the Mass is thus considered the heart of Christianity as it encapsulates the one, but eternally efficacious, sacrifice ofChrist onCalvary.^{[citation needed]}

One divide within high church Lutheranism is in the matter of the direction of the liturgy. Some follow the understanding of liturgy as "work of the people" whereas others follow the understanding of the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article XXIV which states that the Mass can "be understood as a daily sacrifice, provided this means the whole Mass, the ceremony and also the proclamation of the Gospel, faith, prayer, and thanksgiving."^[1] A common hallmark of this divergence is the preference of the term "Divine Service" for the liturgy of Holy Communion (fromGottesdienst,Gudstjaenst,Jumalanpalvelus) among those who see the liturgy as chiefly the service of Christ for the Church. This divergence in liturgical theology is also manifested in debates on theeucharistic prayers, the epiclesis, and the role of the laity in the liturgy.^{[citation needed]}

The praying of theDivine office is also characteristic to high church Lutheran spirituality (with breviaries such asThe Brotherhood Prayer Book andFor All the Saints: A Prayer Book for and by the Church being used to pray the canonical hours).Confession as a sacrament is part of Lutheran tradition and is not considered unique to "high church". A small number of evangelical catholic congregations reaffirm Melanchthon's wider use of the word "sacrament" (in the Apology and in Loci Communes) by consideringHoly Matrimony,Unction,Confirmation, andHoly Orders to be Sacraments.^{[citation needed]}

Formal liturgy based on the western CatholicMass with varying degrees ofchanting, the use oforgan music,crucifixes, silverchalices,hosts and the use ofvestments forHoly Communion has always been characteristic of Lutheran worship. The use of hosts has been an important way to express belief inReal presence. The return of the weekly Mass,sign of the cross,eucharistic prayer and regular use of vestments in all churches are results of theliturgical movement, but things likealtar servers, Gospel processions,incense, aspersions, a complete eucharistic prayer (i.e. including theepiclesis rather than merely Christ'sWords of Institution) are regarded as "high church". Alsogenuflection, together with theelevation of the host and chalice, is often regarded among more Protestant-minded Lutherans as Roman Catholic practices, althoughMartin Luther himself held these practices^[34] and they were part of early Lutheranism. In Lutheran churches the use ofaltar bells during the elevation (to draw the attention of the congregation during the Words of Institution) was occasionally practiced until the 18th century.^[7][35] Adoration of theBlessed Sacrament during the moment of Elevation is also a Lutheran practice.^[36] However, except in special occasions of Swedish High Church societies^[37] and among the most high-church of the North American Lutheran Churches like theAnglo-Lutheran Catholic Church,Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament is seldom practised, even in high church circles. Unlike in Anglican Church, use of "fiddleback"chasubles are not seen as an adherence to Roman Catholic practice, because they were traditionally used in Lutheran churches in Germany until the Enlightenment and inNordic countries until theLiturgical movement. Today they are more rare and are not necessarily favoured by clergy inNordic countries because of the associations with the former era of liturgical decline.^{[citation needed]}

Sweden

• Bo Giertz
• Bertil Gärtner
• Albert Lysander (priest)
• Gunnar Rosendal
• Eric Segelberg
• Nathan Söderblom
• Yngve Brilioth
• Yngve Kalin

Germany

• Heinrich Hansen
• Friedrich Heiler
• Helmut Echternach

North America

• Frank Senn
• Robert W. Jenson
• Carl Braaten
• Irl A. Gladfelter

• Laurentius Petri Gothus
• Toivo Harjunpää
• Gabriel Hebert
• Crypto-papism

• Kilström, B.,Högkyrkligheten i Sverige och Finland under 1900-talet. Helsingborg 1990,ISBN 91-7830-052-5
• Bexell, Oloph.,The Oxford Movement as Received in Sweden. Kyrkohistorisk Årsskrift 2006,ISBN 91-85582-57-3
• Rosendal, G.,The Catholic Movement in the Swedish Church Evanston 1950
• Drobnitzky, W:Hochkirchliche Bewegung. Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG), Dritte Auflage, III Band, 1959
• Mumm, Reinhard:Hochkirchliche Bewegung in Deutschland. Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Band XV, 1986
• Swidler, Leonard J.:The Ecumenical Vanguard: The History of the Una Sancta Movement
• Meland, Bernard E.:Friedrich Heiler and the High Church Movement in Germany (JSTOR)
• Nuechterlein, James.:Turn Out the Lights?.First Things (August/September 2001)
• Sasse, Hermann: “A Brotherly Warning Against the ‘High Church’ Danger,” translated by M.C. Harrison in The Lonely Way: Selected Letters and Essays (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2002), pgs. 304-305.
• McCain, Paul T.:'A Warning Against the High Church Danger'
• Heiser, James D.Stewards of the Mysteries of God, Repristination Press, 2011.ISBN 978-1-891469-41-1
• Giewald, A. & Thomann, G. "The Lutheran High Church Movement in Germany and its liturgical work: an introduction", Lulu.com, 2011.ISBN 978-1-4709-7378-0

• Evangelical-Lutheran liturgical congregations: Lutheran congregations with a High Church churchmanship

• Lutheran liturgy and worship
• History of Lutheranism
• Church of Sweden

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